
Class OXeS 

Book ■ ^' '-" 

Copyright N° 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr 



PROFITABLE 

STOCK FEEDING 

A BOOK FOR THE FARMER 



By 
HOWARD R. S.VJITH 

Professor of Animal Husbandry, 

Uni-versity of Nebraska 

In-vestigator in Animal Feeding, 

Nebraska Experiment Station 



PUBLISHED BV THE AUTHOR 

1906 • 

LINCOLN, NEBRASKA 






LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

DEC 26 1905 

Copyrisht Entry 
ASS ex. XXc, No. 

t ^d i^ 3 9 

COPY B. 



^ 



COPYRIGHT, 1905 
BY H. R. SMITH 



bMGan printing house 
chicago, ill. 



PREFACE. 

Profitable Stock Feeding, if the book deserves 
snch a title, had its inception in a series of type- 
written lectures prepared for winter course students 
in the University of Nebraska School of Agricul- 
ture. With a constantly increasing enrollment in 
the stock feeding classes- (the number in 1905 pass- 
ing the two hundred mark) it seemed best to pub- 
lish in permanent form a rather full discussion of 
the subject, covering the ground in a way that 
would make it easily comprehended by even the 
least experienced, whether in the science or practice 
of feeding animals. The writer was further en- 
couraged to undertake such a task because of an 
enlarged correspondence with stock feeders, who, 
by proposing questions which presented themselves 
in their feeding operations, have manifested more 
than usual interest and confidence in what may be 
called the scientific side of stock feeding. 

For several years previous to engaging in college 
and experiment station work, the writer was a prac- 
tical stock feeder, in the business for profit. It was 
an early realization of the financial advantages that 
would come from a knowledge of foods and the proc- 
esses of nutrition in animals that led to a more or 
less extended inquiry into the subject as a science. 
Later experiences in the field of investigation have 
made this the more evident. Each year, as the re- 
sults of experiments are compiled and the work of 
other stations reviewed, new proof is added to the 
fact that a careful system of feeding, in which na- 
ture's laws are given recognition, is capable of pro- 
ducing, to a marked degree, larger and more prof- 
itable gains than indiscriminate feeding. It has 
been proved beyond a doubt that the cost of pro 



Vi PREFACE. 

diicing gains may be reduced from 20 to 30 per cent 
by properly compounding rations. Such evidence is 
forthcoming from all stations of the Middle 
West, where feeding questions have been given 
most consideration. Should a farmer lose by dis- 
ease one animal out of every five, he would feel 
much concerned. The equivalent of this is .hap- 
pening on many farms today through injudicious 
feeding. 

If stock feeding is to be conducted with profit, 
there must be put into the work a high order of 
intelligence. How can it be otherwise? The feeder 
is in constant touch with nature's laws, which must 
not be ignored. He is dealing with a wide range 
of foods, differing essentially in physical character, 
in composition, and in digestibility. He is further- 
more dealing with an animal mechanism infinitely 
more complex in the arrangement of parts and the 
performance of functions , than anything ever 
wrought by man. If all foods and all classes of 
animals were alike, the problem would be a simple 
one. If all food consisted of the natural herbage, 
which at one time^grew uncultivated, animals would 
get for themselves more nearly what the system 
requires. But the artificial propagation of numer- 
ous forms of food (some kinds produced in greater 
abundance than others) has made the economical 
utilization of such foods a complex science. Nor 
can profitable stock feeding be looked upon as a 
science merely. It is a business, too, in the sense 
that one who is engaged in the work is each year 
confronted with a change in prices on foods, which 
compels him to keep posted on market quotations 
in order to be able to select those which go farthest 
for the money. In the following chapters market 
prices in their relation to profitable production are 
given the consideration they deserve. 



PREFACE. Vll 

While we are to be congratulated for the light 
that has been thrown upon feeding problems by ex- 
tensive work in the realm of research carried on 
during comparatively recent years, both at home 
and abroad, there is a great work 3^et to be done. 
The facts presented in this book are largely based 
upon scientific investigations carried on to the date 
of this writing, coupled with observations made by 
the writer during a period of practical experience 
in feeding while associated with his father, the late 
F. H. Smith, an extensive stock feeder for a period 
of forty years, whose wise counsel has been of ines- 
timable value. An attempt has been made to begin 
at the bottom of the subject of stock feeding and 
proceed in some logical order. While the use of cer- 
tain technical terms is unavoidable, the aim has been 
to present the facts in a straightforward manner 
clothing them in the simplest language. It is hoped 
that the contents will be readable, and instructive 
to any and all who are interested in the feeding of 
live stock. 

It is out of the province of a book on feeding 
to include diseases of animals, but it seemed best to 
treat briefly of certain intestinal parasites found in 
sheep, inasmuch as this is a common disorder, but 
one easily guarded against. The thanks of the 
writer are due Mr. Joseph E. Wing, of Ohio, for 
the preparation of the chapter on parasites in sheep, 
and for reviewing other copy on sheep. The part 
devoted to sheep feeding was also reviewed by 
Hon. Peter Jansen, of Nebraska, well known for 
his success in feeding sheep on a large scale. 

In recognition of the immensity of the poultry 
industry in the United States, and its possibilities 
under careful management, a few chapters are de- 
voted to this important subject. Farm flocks of 
poultry are usually under the management of 



VIU PREFACE. 

women, who, because of their more painstaking 
efforts in looking after the details connected with 
the rearing of young chickens, turkeys, etc., succeed 
best. Poultry raising is a pleasant and profitable 
occupation for the woman who has the time and im 
clination for it. The chapters in this book were 
prepared by a sister of the writer, Miss M. L. Smith, 
who has been unusually successful in the manage- 
ment of poultry and as a farmers' institute lecturer 
upon the subject. 

The leguminous hay crops — alfalfa, cowpeas and 
soy beans — are new to many farmers of the United 
States, and the growth of one or more of these or 
the better known clover plant is so essential on 
farms devoted to stock feeding, it has been thought 
best to publish in the appendix something concern- 
ing the culture of the three first mentioned. For 
the discussion of cowpea and soy bean growing the 
writer is indebted to Professor D. H. Otis, formerly 
of the Kansas Experiment Station, now connected 
with the Wisconsin Experiment Station. Alfalfa 
growing is described by Mir. E. G. Montgomery, 
who has given special attention to alfalfa in his 
work in the crop department of the Nebraska Ex- 
periment Station. Acknowledgment is also made 
to Professor T. L. Haecker, of the Minnesota Ex- 
periment Station, for reviewing the manuscript on 
dairy cattle ; to my associate, Director E. A. Bur- 
nett, for reviewing that part concerning the feed- 
ing of breeding swine ; to Mr. Fred Rankin, of Illi- 
nois, for reviewing other chapters on swine feed- 
ing; to Professor Rice, of the Cornell (New York) 
Experiment Station, for reviewing the copy on poul- 
try; and to Professor W. L. Carlyle, of the Colo- 
rado Experiment Station, for reviewing the chap- 
ters on horse feeding. 

H. R. SMITH. 

Lincoln, Nebr., December 15, 1905. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Chaptee. 

I. Introduction— Live Stock in Its Kelation to 

the Farm ^ 

Part I.— General Principles in Stock Feeding. 

II. The Products from Feeding Animals 7 

III. The Composition of Foods 1- 

IV. Digestible Nutrients in Foods 19 • 

Part II.— Milk Production. 

V. The Dairy Cow 

VI. Fundamentals in Feeding the Dairy Cow -iS 

VII. Winter Eations in the Corn Belt 5.5 

VIII. Feeding Without the Legumes for Roughage . . 80 

IX. Summer Pasture for Dairy Cows. 9' 

X. Eearing Calves on Skim-milk 103 

Part III.— Beef Cattle. 

XL Beef Tye ■ ^^^ 

XII. Shelter and Feed Lot Facilities for Beef 

Cattle l^-*^ 

Xin. Baby Beef J^^ 

XTV. Feeding Yearling Steers for Beef lob 

XV. Fattening Steers with Grain on Pasture 165 

XVI. Winter Feeding Eange Two-year-old Steers.. 172 
XVII. Corn Substitutes, Protein Concentrates and 
• the Preparation of Foods for Fattening 



Cattle. 



186 



Part IV. — Sheep. 

XVIII. Mutton Type 191 

XTX. The Farmer 's Breeding Flock 199 

XX. Fattening Lambs in the Fall 208 

XXI. Fattening Lambs in Early Winter 220 

XXII. Fattening Eange Lambs or Natives which 

have not had Grain on Pasture. ....... 232 

ix 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter. Page. 

XXIII. Parasites iu Sheep 248 

Part V. — Swine. 

XXIV. Types of Hogs 253 

XXV. The Breeding Herd of Swine 261 

XXVT, Fattening Pigs in the Fall 273 

XXVII. Fattening Pigs in Winter 280 

XXVIII. Corn Substitutes for Swine 293 

XXIX. Protein Concentrates and the Preparation of 

Foods for Swine 298 

Part VI. — Farm Poultry. 

XXX. Types of Fowls 309 

XXXI. Raising Little Chicks 315 

XXXII. Care of Grown Fowls in Summer 328 

XXXIII. Care of Hens in Winter 333 

XXXIV. Turkeys and Guineas 346 

Part VII. — Horses. 

XXXV. Types of Horses — Summer Feeding for Work 357 

XXXVI. Winter Eations for Work Horses 368 

Appendix 381 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

Kernel of Cora yhowiiig (.'ellular Structure 17 

Food Case 18 

Food Chart 26, 27 

Good Dairy Type 41 

Inferior Dairy Type 41 

Holstein Cow 43 

Shorthorn-Jersey Cow 43 

Shorthorn Milch Cow 43 

Silo 69 

Corn and Cowpeas for Silage 69 

Ears of Corn Showing Proper Stage of Kipeness for Silage. 71 

Dairy Cows on Pasture 102 

Calf Stanchions 112 

Angus Steer (good type) Showing Eetail Cuts of Beef. . . .116 

Jersey Steer (inferior type) 116 

Angus and Jersey Steers — Rear View 117 

Eib Cuts of Angus and Jersey Steers 117 

Good Feeder but Inferior Butcher Steer 122 

Inferior Steer from Viewpoint of Both Butcher aid Feeder. 122 
Grade Hereford Steers. Comparison of Good and Inferior 

Types 124 

Challenger— Grand Champion Steer, 1903 128, 129 

Shamrock — Grand Champion Steer, 1902 131 

Clear Lake Jute — Grand Champion Steer, 1904 131 

Pat Eyan — Champion Galloway Bull 135 

Choice Goods — Champion Shorthorn Bull 137 

Prime Lad — Champion Hereford Bull 137 

Bugler — Angus Bull, Showing Masculine Character 141 

Shorthorn Two-year-old Steers from Milking Cows 142 

Challenger II and Stanton 149 

Angus Baby Beeves 155 

Eange-bred Hereford Calves 159 

Grade Angus Steers Grain-fed on Pasture 168 

3ti 



jrii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Two-year-old Steers Fed with and without Oil Meal 176 

Eations Kequired for One Pound of Gain 177 

Kange Cattle Scene 190 

Typical Specimens of Four Mutton Breeds of Sheep 198 

Ewes and Lambs in Pasture 195 

Shropshire-Merino Breeding Ewes 201 

Woodland Farm Scene 211 

Sheep in Alfalfa 212 

Sheep Feeding Yards 221 

Kange Yearlings 222 

Range Scenes near Forbes, Wyoming 233 

Sheep Feeding in the Semi-Arid West 242 

Lard Type — English Champion Berkshire Boar' 254 

Bacon Type — English Champion Tamworth Boar 254 

Portable Hog House 263 

Duroc-Jersey Brood Sow and Pigs 272 

Poland-Chinas in the Feed-lot 279 

Eack for Feeding Uncut Alfalfa Hay to Hogs 288 

Eack Design for Feeding Alfalfa Hay to Hogs 289 

Pens for Winter Pig-feeding Tests 292 

Laying Type — Single Comb Brown Leghorns 312 

General-purpose Type — Single Comb Buff Orpingtons 313 

Meat Type — Partridge Cochins 314 

Framework of Colony Brooder House , 317 

Colony Brooder House 319 

Curtain Front House 334 

Curtain Front House — Interior View 335 

Scratching Shed House 337 

Poultry House " 339 

Double House 341 

Inexpensive Poultry House 343 

Poultry House — Interior View 345 

Diseased Organs of Turkey Affected with Hepatitis 348 

Pair of Mammoth Bronze Turkeys 352 

Types of Horses 360 

Clydesdales Eeady for Work 361 

Alfalfa, Showing Advantage of Early Fall Sowing 388 



INTRODUCTION 



CHAPTER I. 



LIVE STOCK IN ITS RELATION TO THE 
FARM. 

Maintaining Soil Fertility. — One thing to be re- 
gretted in our American agriculture is the existing 
warfare against land fertility. This is particularly 
true in the states of the Middle West. Year after 
year millions of tons of vegetable matter contain- 
ing valuable fertilizing constituents move from 
these states to distant lands never to be returned. 
This rapid exodus of farm crops is due partly to 
alluring foreign markets for grains ; partly to an 
aggressive Western spirit, a desire to elbow in and 
get the first fruits of the land quickly, regardless 
of the future. 

The people of the Old World have acquired a 
liking for bread and cakes made from our American 
corn, and they are now feeding this grain to their 
live stock. Government statistics show a phenom- 
enal growth in popularity for this American cereal 
in foreign countries. With the existing market con- 
ditions so favorable, it is not surprising that lands 
adapted for corn growing are now being used more 
extensively than ever. 

The large production of corn is justifiable, but its 
transportation to other lands to be fed out is not a 
favorable sign for the future. It is a question how 
long this outpour of grain can last without result- 

• 



4 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

ing finally in a lamentable deterioration of the soil. 
It is a question of duration only, as it is bound to 
come sooner or later, unless something is put back 
on the land. 

In the New England states enormous sums are 
annually expended for commercial fertilizers. The 
land will not produce satisfactorily without the ap- 
plication of plant food of some kind, and barnyard 
manure is not available in sufficient quantity. The 
purchase of mineral phosphates, nitrates and potash 
salts is the only alternative. In Illinois, Indiana 
and adjacent territory, farms which have been pro- 
ducing grain sold through the elevator year after 
year are much less productive than those -which 
have been partly devoted to the rearing of live 
stock. In fact, there is but little land in the entire 
corn belt which is not improved today by the ap- 
plication of stable manure. 

The practice of selling corn, hay and other farm 
<:rops from the land, year after year, results in a 
gradual but constant loss of soil fertility. It costs 
no more to till soil which will produce sixty bush- 
els of corn per acre than soil which is so worn that 
it will produce but thirty bushels. Herein is a fun- 
damental principle in farming, and one of the 
strongest arguments in favor of live stock husband- 
ry. The feeding of farm animals not only means that 
85 to 90 per cent of the fertilizing value of the crops 
fed can be returned to the land, but also that 
such forage crops as alfalfa, clover or cowpeas will be 
grown to accompany corn feeding. These crops 
draw from the air more nitrogen than is sold from 
the land in the shape of meat or milk products — 
the effect of which is a building up rather than a 
tearing down. 

Home Market. — But there are other arguments 
in favor of live stock husbandry as a part of the 



LIVE STOCK — RELATION TO FARM. 5 

business of farming. It provides a home market 
for the crops grown. Feeding hve stock is a means 
of condensing a product to about one-eighth of its 
original weight. Seven pounds out of every eight 
are therefore marketed on the farm, reducing the 
freight charges for transporting grain Sjj/j per cent, 
and obviating the usual haul to the local market or 
elevator. If the Eastern or European farmer can feed 
with profit corn grown in the Western States, then 
the Western farmer may feed with still greater 
profit, because he saves a large part of the trans- 
portation charges. 

Utilization of Cheap Roughage. — Along with 
grain there is produced on farms a large quantity 
of coarse fodder, such as cornstalks, straw, etc. 
Such forage does not find a ready market because 
of its bulky nature, and it is therefore left to waste 
if stock is not kept to consume it. The profits 
from farming are greatly enhanced by keeping 
stock which will utilize at least a part of this rough- 
ness. 

Distribution of Labor. — Another consideration of 
special consequence at the present time is the fact 
that stock feeding distributes labor throughout the 
year. The greater demand for help during the 
growing season makes farm wages higher during 
the summer than winter. Since stock feeding takes 
place largely during the winter months, employ- 
ment can be furnished continuously. Wages per 
month for a whole year should be less than for a 
period of but eight months. 

Source of Enjoyment. — Beside the material ad- 
vantages mentioned, there is still another, which 
appeals to some more than to others. It is the per- 
sonal satisfaction and enjoyment in having about 
the farm-home domestic animals which have learned 
to be submissive and docile under man's control. 



6 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDINa 

Nearly every farmer, more or less isolated from 
society as he is, may derive no little pleasure from 
the ownership of animals. This is especially true 
with those who take pride in keeping good stock. 
Children reared in such environment are better oc- 
cupied and grow to be broader and more sympa- 
thetic than when there are no animals about them. 
For these, and other reasons, live stock husband- 
ry should be a part of the business of every farmer. 
As has been pointed out, if by feeding live stock 
no more than elevator prices are secured for the 
farm crops grown, still there is abundant reason 
for favoring this method of marketing most of the 
farm crops. While there may be an occasional year 
when less than elevator prices are received, the 
careful feeder is more often able to secure a margin 
above such prices. 



PART I 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN STOCK 
FEEDING 



CHAPTER II. 

THE PRODUCTS FROM FEEDING ANIMALS. 

The profits to .be derived from the feeding of 
stock are dependent upon two leading factors: (i) 
tire amount of gain or increase to be produced at 
the least expense for food consumed; (2) the qual- 
ity of the finished product. 

The question of making large and economical 
gains is very largely one of food supply, though 
some animals respond more readily than others — a 
matter which will be discussed later in the chapters 
on quality, or type, in animals. In order that the 
relation of foods to animal products may be under- 
stood more clearly, it will be well first to learn some- 
thing about the structural character and composi- 
tion of the finished products, then something of the 
foods which are concerned in forming them. This 
is fundamental to rational stock feeding. 

Farm animals are living factories in which food 
in its crude state is transformed into meat, milk 
and eggs for human consumption, wool for the man- 
ufacture of fabrics, and energy for the use of man 
in performing various kinds of work. 

The material products mentioned differ in physi- 
cal character,- yet they are similar in composition. 
All are complex, made up, as they are, of various 
compounds, each of which consists of chemical ele- 

7 



8 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

ments bound together. In the process of digestion 
and assimilation all may come from a single food- 
stuff, but they come more often from a combination 
of two or more. Foodstuffs must, then, contain all 
the elements found in the various products into 
which the foods are converted. 

Meat carcasses consist of four principal parts. 
Fatty tissue amounts to 41.65 per cent of the entire 
carcass; lean tissue, 11.97 per cent; mineral matter, 
mostly bone, 3.26 per cent; and water, 43.12 per 
cent. These figures are the averages for the car- 
casses of all fat animals. Fatty tissues, including 
lard and tallow, are composed of three principal fat 
compounds called palmatine, stearine and olein. 
These, like other compounds, consist of a group of 
chemical elements bound together in certain 
definite proportions. In the fat known as palma- 
tine, the proportion by volume is C (carbon) 
51 parts, H (hydrogen) 98 parts, and O (oxygen) 6 
parts, written QiHggOg. The lean of meat might 
be called animal albumen, or protein. The latter 
name is applied to those compounds which contain 
the element nitrogen in addition to the elements 
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, as found in fats. 
They are also called nitrogenous, because they con- 
tain nitrogen. Beside the elements carbon, oxy- 
gen, hydrogen and nitrogen, the latter a gas forming 
four-fifths of the air, protein compounds also con- 
tain sulphur, and often phosphorus in small quan- 
tities. Bone in mature animals is made up of about 
two-thirds mineral matter and one-third animal 
matter. The mineral part is calcium phosphate, 
compounds of iron and other minerals Most foods 
contain enough mineral matter for bone develop- 
ment. The animal part of the bone is largely al- 
buminous, like lean meat. It may be extracted, by 
means of hot water and is used for soups. 



Products from feeding animals. 9 

Milk. — The cow converts food into milk, composed 
ox five parts — an average quality being about 3.7 
per cent fat, 3.6 per cent protein, 5 per cent sugiir, 
0.7 per cent mineral matter and 87 per cent water. 
The fat of milk, from which butter is made, is 
Uke fat from meat, in that it consists of fatty 
compounds made up of carbon, oxygen and hy- 
drogen. The protein of milk, corresponding to 
lean meat, consists of both casein and albumen. 
Casein curdles to form cheese and the albumen 
rises as a scum when milk is scalded. The sugar of 
milk is a compound which, like fat, consists of the 
elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, though 
sugar dififers from fat, in that the elements hydro- 
gen and oxygen occur in the proper proportion to 
form water. In fats they do not. The mineral 
matter of milk is similar to the mineral matter in 
bone. These minerals are dissolved in the water 
which constitutes a large part of the milk, approx- 
imately 87 per cent by weight. Since milk is the 
only article of diet for young animals, we should 
na-turally expect it to contain the nutrients in pro- 
portion for producing body tissue in such animals. 

The egg is similar to meat in composition. The 
white and part of the yolk are protein, or albumen, 
constituting 13 per cent of the weight of the egg. 
The yolk»also contains fat, mineral matter and wa- 
ter — the fat constituting 9 per cent ; the mineral 
matter, 12 per cent, including the shell; and water, 
66 per cent. Eggs contain all the elements of body 
growth, since the chick in embryo derives all its 
nourishment from within. 

Wool is a tough, fibrous substance valuable for 
clothing. While it is not an article of food, its com- 
position is similar to the substances already de- 
scribed. It contains the elements carbon, oxygen, 
hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur, the latter giving 



10 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

wool a disagreeable odor when burned. Consider- 
able fatty matter is secreted about the wool fibers. 

Work is not a substance produced from food, but 
is a manifestation of energy, of which food is the 
source. When coal, which is nearly pure carbon, 
is put in the engine and burned, the union of car- 
bon and oxygen produces heat, which by means of 
water is transformed into energy. When a work- 
ing animal like the horse is fed, a "large part of the 
food goes to produce energy. A part of this energy, 
as in the case of the steam engine, comes from the 
union of oxygen and carbon, but some of it also 
results from the dissolution of compounds built up 
through the absorption of heat from the sun during 
plant growth. The foods which produce most en- 
ergy are those which contain considerable carbon, 
like fats. It is a well-known fact that a man at 
manual labor requires more fat meat than the office 
man. So also the inhabitants of a cold climate re- 
quire more fat for warmth than do the inhabitants 
of warmer climates. Heat and energy are trans- 
formable, one into the other. 

Animal Requirements. — From, the composition of 
the meat carcass it will be seen that there is about 
3.5 times as much fat as lean present, the fat being 
carbonaceous material and the lean nitrogenous. In 
milk there is also considerably more carbonaceous 
matter than nitrogenous. But not all the food con- 
sumed by an animal can be converted into tissue or 
milk or be made to produce external work. A cer- 
tain amount is absolutely necessary to supply heat 
for the body and maintain the animal machinery in 
the performance of its numerous functions. 

The food of maintenance is that which is .required 
to keep an animal at constant weight while at rest. 
It corresponds to the fuel which is required to heat 
the iron of the. engine and generate enough steam 



PRODUCTS FROM FEEDING ANIMALS. II 

to Start the belt-wheel without being able to per- 
form work. When an animal is receiving a full feed, 
approximately one-half of the ration is required for 
simple maintenance. Since this part gots largely to 
generate heat for the body and drive such muscles 
as 'those concerned in lung expansion and heart ac- 
tion, it is apparent that most of the food of main- 
tenance may consist of starch or sugar, and fats. 
Only enough protein, or nitrogenous material, is 
needed to replace certain worn-out tissues, of which 
nitrogen is a part. From the fact that animal prod- 
ucts as meat and milk contain something like three 
times as much carbonaceous matter (starches, sug- 
ars and fats) as protein or nitrogenous, and that, 
further, tlje food of maintenance — half the ration — 
may consist largely of the carbonaceous (1:12), it 
seems probable that food supplied an average ma- 
ture animal should contain about seven times as 
much carbonaceous matter as nitrogenous. These 
requirements will be described with greater exact- 
ness after attention has been given to foods. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE COMPOSITION OF FOODS. 

Animals Depend Upon Plants for Nourishment. — 
Since all animals either directly or indirectly derive 
their nourishment from vegetation, the plant suit- 
able for feeding purposes may be looked upon as 
a factory where crude matter taken from the 
soil and air is made into various compounds at- 
tractive and nourishing to the animal. For con- 
venience these plant compounds are grouped into 
classes, the compounds belonging to eaclj class be- 
ing more or less similar in character. The chemist 
in making an analysis of a plant takes it apart, as 
it were, by the use of heat and chemicals, and de- 
termines the weight of each group, stating it finally 
in terms of percentage, the whole added amounting 
to lOO per cent. These different groups into which 
a plant or food may be separated are as follows : 
water ; mineral matter ; carbohydrates ; fats, or oils ; 
and protein. Each of these groups has its part to 
play in the animal economy, the function of one 
being quite different from that of another. A few 
foods contain these several groups of compounds 
in the proportions that meet the needs of animals. 
1:)ut in most instances there is an excess of one and 
a deficiency of anotber, making it desirable to put 
together two or more opposite in character, in order 
to supply the proper balance for the best develop- 
ment of the animal. Tliere is a tendency on the 
part of some to ignore the fact that a food should 
be considered with reference to its constituents. 
Many go on the assumption that a pound of timothy 

12 



COMPOSITION OF FOODS. 1 3 

hay, for example, is equivalent to a pound of clover 
hay, when, as a matter of fact, their composition is 
such as to make them widely different, so that one 
cannot be used as a substitute for the other. 

The value of a ration also depends upon certain 
other qualities, such as digestibility, bulk and pala- 
tability, which will be considered later. Concerning 
these different groups and their functions the fol- 
lowing may be said of each : 

I. Water is the transporting agent which carries 
from the soil mineral matter in solution, and from 
one part of the plant to another the conipounds 
formed in the plant. Water, carrying mineral matter, 
sugar and the like in solution, is called sap, and sap 
is to the plant what blood is to the animal. But, 
however valuable water may be as an agent of 
growth in the plant, it is valueless as a food constit- 
uent for the nourishment of animals. The water in 
the brook has just as much value, the only difference 
being that plant water, consumed with other con- 
stituents in the plant, adds succulence to certain 
foods, making them more palatable and otherwise 
more suitable for such animals as the milch cow. 
All plants used for feeding purposes, no matter how 
well cured in the field, contain some water. In 
grains like corn, wheat and oats, it constitutes some- 
thing like ID per cent of the weight of the food. In 
green grass, fresh-cut cornstalks and beets, water 
is present in large quantities, as high as 90 per cent 
by weight. Owing to this wide variation in the 
water content of plants, and in view of the fact that 
water has no special nutritive value, it is customary 
to speak of the food value of a plant in terms of the 
dry matter it contains. The chemist determines the 
dry matter by weighing the substance before and 
after the application of slow heat, which drives out 
the water without burning the plant. 



14 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

II. Ash, or Mineral Matter. — When a plant or 
sample of food is completely burned there always re- 
mains an ash, which is the mineral matter stored up 
by the plant during growth. Mineral matter forms 
only a very small part of a food. In shelled corn it 
amounts to but 1.5 per cent by weight. In alfalfa, 
clover and some grasses it runs as high as 6 or 8 
per cent. Plants which present a large leaf surface 
ordinarily contain the most mineral matter. This 
is probably due to the fact that more water is drawn 
up through such a plant, carrying always more or 
less mineral matter in solution. It is also worthy of 
note that most of the mineral matter is found in the 
leaves of a plant, because the water, evaporating 
from their surface, deposits the mineral matter orig- 
inally held in solution. 

In grains we find most of the mineral matter 
about the germ. It must be needed by the young 
plant as it comes forth from the seed during ger- 
mination. Without lime and phosphoric acid and 
certain other minerals, bone formation would be im- 
possible. The digestive juices need chlorine and 
soda. Iron seems to be intimately associated with 
the formation of the red corpuscles in the blood. 
Milk contains considerable mineral matter in solu- 
tion. In young animals it is especially important to 
have sufficient mineral matter supplied by the food, 
because a large bone development is taking place. 
Fortunately all of our foods, except corn and certain 
prepared foods, contain sufficient mineral matter for 
the animal, though salt is usually lacking and this 
mineral must be supplied. 

III. Plant Oils. — Plants also contain more or 
less oil, or fat. It occurs in the largest quantity in 
seeds. Among the cereals, corn and oats are richest 
in oil, each containing about 5 per cent, and most of 
this oil is found in the germ. Flaxseed and cotton- 



COMPOSITION OF FOODS. 1 5 

seed contain from 33 to 37 per cent of oil. The oil 
content of foods is determined by the application 
of some chemical solvent, like ether. The food is 
first weighed and then soaked in ether, which dis- 
solves the oil. The solution is now poured o&, and 
the ether is made to evaporate, leaving the oil be- 
hind. In this process there is also dissolved out a 
certain amount of chlorophyll and gummy matter, 
more being included in the extraction of oils from 
green fodders. Because of the fact that something 
besides oil is taken out of a plant in this process, 
the chemist uses, more properly, the term ether 
extract. Fats, or oils, from plants are very similar 
in composition to animal fats. Their function is 
practically the same as that of the starches and 
sugars; namely, the formation of animal fat and the 
productfon of heat. Plant oils, when burned, will 
give out 2.25 times as much heat as either starch or 
sugar; in other words, one pound of fat is equiva- 
lent to 2.25 pounds of carbohydrates in the pro- 
duction of heat or work. 

IV. Carbohydr3tes. — That class of food com- 
pounds called carbohydrates includes starch, sugar 
and crude fiber. All of these compounds contain car- 
bon, hydrogen and oxygen, the latter two elements in 
the proportion to form water. As a class they form 
by far the largest part of most foods. They are 
elaborated in the plant by the union of carbon di- 
oxide gas, taken from the air through the pores of 
the leaves, and water drawn from the soil. In this 
union, heat from the sun is absolutely necessary. 
This heat is stored in the compound in latent form, 
which furnishes warmth and energy when the com- 
pound is broken up in the process of digestion. The 
carbohydrates, then, are sources of heat and energy. 
They can also form fat in the body, because animal 
fat, as already mentioned, consists of the same ele- 



l6 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

ments — carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Starch forms 
as much as 75 per cent of the dry matter of corn, 
wheat, potatoes and some other foods. Sugar is not 
a common constituent of mature plants. It occurs 
principally in such plants as sorghum and sugar 
beets. Its function is the same as that of starch, 
and the nutritive value of one is about equal to the 
other, sugar being slightly higher, because the 
change of starch to sugar is the first step in the 
process of digestion. Crude fiber, another carbo- 
hydrate similar to starch and sugar in composition, 
constitutes the tough, woody part of plants. The 
stems of all plants contain more crude fiber than 
does the leaf portion. With the exception of water, 
it is the least valuable constituent of a plant, be- 
cause it is very largely indigestible. Young plants 
contain less crude fiber than plants which have ma- 
tured and formed seeds. During the ripening proc- 
ess, a certain amount of starch in leaf and stem 
changes to the more indigestible crude fiber. What 
crude fiber of the plant can be digested is sup- 
posed to have practically the same function as 
starches and sugars and to equal them in value. 

V. Protein, or Nitrogenous Compounds. — The 
substances just described — carbohydrates and fats — 
contain no nitrogen and therefore belong to that 
large class of food nutrients sometimes called 
non-nitrogenous. There is another class of nu- 
trients, very much more rare, called nitrogenous 
compounds, because they contain the element nitro- 
gen in addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It 
is customary to speak of all these nitrogen com- 
pounds as protein. The protein compounds, unlike 
the carbohydrates and fats, are not formed in the 
plant solely by the union of carbon dioxide gas, 
taken from the air, and water from the soil. They 
must have nitrogen besides these other elements. 



COMPOSITION OF FOODS. 17 

and nitrogen in the soil is not abundant. It occurs 
combined with certain minerals, forming what are 
called nitrates, such as sodium nitrate and potas- 
sium nitrate, the latter, common saltpeter. When- 
ever a soil becomes less fertile, it is often because of 
a shortage of nitrates, which are sometimes dis- 
solved and carried away by the leaching action of 
water after heavy rains. Fortunately, nature has 
provided a way of restoring nitrogen to the soil. A 
certain class of plants, called legumes, have the 
power of taking free nitrogen from the air, convert- 
ing it into compounds suitable for the growth of 
plants. The common legumes are the clovers, al- 
falfa, peas and beans. These plants, having little 
nodules upon the roots filled with living bacteria, 
have the power, in some way not well understood, 
of taking free nitrogen from the air pores in the soil, 
transforming it into plant food. 

The protein compounds, of which there are sev- 
eral in number, are the only compounds which can 




Crown StarcK 



,A- -.^1^ Horny Sfurtii 
'^^^^' * -i-iorai Qlulen 



Magnified section of a corn kernel sliowing the layer of gluten 
cells (protein) near the outer edge and the starch within. Some 
protein also occurs mingled with the starch — more with the horny 
portion — the greater part of the oil being found within the germ. 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

form lean meat. Some are soluble and some insolu- 
ble in water. Those soluble in water are called al- 
bumen, corresponding to the white of the egg, which 
is animal albumen. On the other hand, the sticky 
part of wheat flour, called gluten, is a protein com- 
pound for the most part insoluble in water. 




Mineral 
Matter. 



Waier. 



VO*n) CA^'.K DESIGNED BY THE WRITER FOR CLASS-ROOM 

USE. 

Beneath each food is shown its constituent parts — the digestible 
nutrients and other matter which together form the one-pound 
sample. These foods are arranged in the order of nutritive ratios, 
the one on the extreme left being richest in protein : the one on 
the extreme i-ight, the most deficient. In the middle are one-pound 
samples of balanced rations — that for the pig consisting of corn 
.<j lb. and shorts .4 lb. ; for the dairy cow, corn .3 lb., bran .1 lb., 
alfalfa .4 lb. and corn stover .2 lb. ; for the fattening steer, corn 
.0 lb., alfalfa .8 lb. and stover .1 lb. For contrast to show the 
excess of starch, an unbalanced ration, consisting of corn 6 lb., 
timothy hay .3 lb. and stover .1 lb. is introduced. 



CHAPTER IV. 

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FOODS. - 

The digestive apparatus with which an animal is 
provided consists of a mechanism for reducing to 
fine particles the food eaten ; numerous glands for 
secreting lluids which act chemically upon the finely 
divided food, changing the several compounds to 
soluble forms ; and a circulatory system whith dis- 
solves this soluble material and carries it to vari- 
ous parts of the body to be used for building tissue 
and liberating heat. It has been found that a part 
of the food compounds in passing through the di- 
gestive tract escapes digestion. The amount di- 
gested depends on the food and, to some extent, 
upon the class of animals fed. Animals in good 
health are fairly uniform in their extraction and 
utilization of nutrients from a given class of foods, 
so much so that it has been found practicable to 
make digestion trials to determine the per cent di- 
gested by a given animal or set of animals, and to 
use these figures as a basis of computation for all 
animals. 

The chemist determines the total amount of each 
of the classes of compounds — carbohydrates, ether 
extract, and protein — present in the food, but the 
feeder, in making up rations, must know the amount 
in each class capable of digestion. 

The digestible nutrients of foodstuffs are usually 
determined by feeding an animal, or set of animals, 
a weighed allowance of some food, the composition 
of which has been previously determined by the 

19 



20 PROriTABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

chemist. Provisions are then made for collecting 
all excrement and urine which come from this food. 
By making an analysis of this waste matter the un- 
digested carbohydrates, fat and protein are found. 
The undigested portion of each, deducted from the 
total previously found in the food, gives the digested 
part, and the amount of each constituent digested, 
divided by the total in the food, gives the per cent 
digestible. This per cent is called the coefficient of 
digestibility. Concentrated foods like grains are 
highly digestible, while coarse fodders are often 
comparatively low in digestibility. In corn, the 
average of several trials shows the protein to be 
76 per cent digestible, the nitrogen-free extract 
(starches and sugars) 93 per cent, the crude fiber 58 
per cent and the ether extract (fat) 86 per cent. In 
timothy hay. cut in bloom, the protein is 56 per 
cent digestible, nitrogen-free extract 63 per cent, 
crude fiber 58 per cent and fat 57 per cent. 

Knowing the chemical composition of foods as 
determined by laboratory methods and the co- 
efficients of digestibility as found by tests with ani- 
mals, it is an easy matter to determine the amount 
of various digestible nutrients in foodstuffs by mul- 
tiplying the former by the latter. Thus corn con- 
tains 10.4 per cent total protein, as found by the 
chemist, which is equivalent to 10.4 pounds of totnl 
protein in 100 pounds of corn. The coefficient of 
digestibility of protein in corn is 76. There are, 
therefore, in 100 pounds of corn 76 per cent of 10.4 
pounds, or 7.9 poimds of digestible protein. It is 
with this digestible protein, and not total protein, 
that the feeder is concerned when he calculates a 
ration. A great deal of work has been done by in- 
vestigators to determine the digestibility of food- 
stuffs. For ready reference Table II, showing the 
amount of digestible nutrients in a large number of 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FOODS. 



21 



foods, is published in the appendix of this book. 
While some of these figures will no doubt be re- 
vised as further determinations are made in future 
years, they are, nevertheless, sufficiently accurate 
to be invaluable to the stockman in calculating 
economical rations. Following is a table showing 
the number of pounds of digestible nutrients in a 
few of the more common foods. These foods are 
grouped into the two classes, concentrates and 
roughage : 







Digestible nutrients 
in 100 lbs. of food. 


Concentrates 




S S 


"■♦3 

So .2 


a 

'S 

o 
(I 


. 1 


93 


> 

^ 2 


Corn 


89.1 
89.0 
88.1 

90.8 

59.5 

86.8 
84.7 
91.6 


10.9 
11.0 
11.9 

9.2 

40.5 
13.2 
15.3 

8.4 


1.4 
3.0 

5.8 

5 7 


8.8 
25.3 

28.2 

16.1 


7.9 

9.2 

12.2 

29.3 

1.7 

2.8 

6.8 

11.0 


66.7 
47.3 
39.2 

32.7 

32.4 
43.4 
35.8 
39.6 


4.3 
4.2 

2.7 

7.0 

0.7 
1.4 
1.7 
1.2 


1: 9.7 


Oats 


1: 6.2 


Wheat bran 

Old process linseed 
meal 


1: 3.7 
1: 1.6 


Roughage. 

Corn stover 

Timothy hay .... 
Red clover hay. . . 
Alfalfa hay 


3.4 
4.4 
6.2 
7.4 


21.3 
34.8 
34.2 
32.4 


1:19.3 
1:16.6 
1: 5.8 
1: 3.8 



The indigestible matter is found by subtracting 
the sum of digestible nutrients and ash from the 
total dry matter, the latter being the foodstuff 
minus the water it contains. 

Nutritive Ratio of Foods. — As has been previous- 
ly stated, that class of nutrients called carbohy- 
drates, including starches, sugars and digestible 
crude fiber, and the class called fats or ether extract 
could all be grouped together under the name non- 
nitrogenous constituents, since they contain no ni- 
trogen. They are, therefore, convertible into fat or 
heat, but not into lean tissue, because the latter con- 



22 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDINa 

tains nitrogen. The nitrogenous compounds, also 
called protein, including such familiar substances as 
the gluten of wheat and corn, the casein of milk, 
etc., form the lean tissue and assist in the formation 
of bone. The ratio of these two general classes of 
constituents in a food — the one forming the fat and 
the other the lean tissue — should be kept in mind, 
since it determines the class to which a food be- 
longs. If a single food contains more protein than 
an average animal needs, it is called a protein or 
nitrogenous food. If it contains less it is called a 
carbonaceous, or, more correctly, a non-nitrogenovis 
food. This ratio of non-nitrogenous to nitrogenous 
constituents is shown in the last column of the 
table, and is called nutritive ratio. It is found 
by multiplying the fat by 2.25, adding the prod- 
uct to the carbohydrates of the food, and divid- 
ing this sum by the protein content. The fat 
is first multiplied by 2.25, because i pound of 
fat is equal to 2^4 pounds of carbohydrates 
in the production of heat, as is shown by heat- 
ing water. One pound of fat burned under water in 
an apparatus for conserving all the heat will raise to 
the same temperature 2.25 times as much water as 
will one pound of starch or sugar. Inasmuch as a 
large part of the food goes to make heat and energy, 
it is customary to assign these relative values to 
fats and carboh3^drates. By way of illustration, the 
nutritive ratio of linseed meal is computed as fol- 
lows: There are in 100 pounds of old process lin- 
seed meal (oil-meal) 7 pounds of digestible fat. 
This multiplied by 2.25 gives 15.7, the carbohydrate 
equivalent of the 7 pounds of fat; This added to 
the 32.7 pounds of digestible carbohydrates in 100 
pounds of linseed meal gives 48.4 pounds of non- 
nitrogenous material, as compared with 29.3 pounds 
of protein, or nitrogenous matter. Dividing the for- 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FOODS. 2$ 

mer by the latter, we have the nutritive ratio i :i.65, 
which means i pound of nitrogenous matter to 1.65 
non-nitrogenous matter. 

Animals must have food nutrients in certain pro- 
portions to meet all the needs of the organism and 
to give the largest returns from the smallest con- 
sumption of food. If an excess of starch is supplied, 
this excess is wasted, because there is not sufficient 
protein present to balance it. On the other hand, 
if an excess of protein is supplied in the ration, it is 
not altogether wasted, because a part of it may go 
to form fat, since protein contains the elements car- 
bon, hydrogen and oxygen (the three elements 
forming fat) and, in addition, the element nitrogen. 
This latter element — the most valuable part of pro- 
tein — is eliminated through the kidneys, if this nu- 
trient is made to take the place of carbohydrates 
in fat formation. An excess of protein, therefore, 
while not a total loss, is an unnecessary extrava- 
gance. 

A balanced ration is one which contains the nu- 
trients in proportions which meet the needs of the 
animal body for its best development ; in other 
words, it is a ration in which the food is in harmony 
with the animal. It may be a single food, but it is 
oftener a combination of two or more. The bal- 
anced ration is no longer looked upon as a theory 
which does not hold good in practice, because it has 
been put to the test and has not been found want- 
ing. Our state experiment stations have conducted 
numerous feeding experiments with animals, in 
which balanced and unbalanced rations have been 
compared. At the Kansas Experiment Station, for 
example, corn, prairie hay and corn stover, a com- 
bination having a nutritive ratio of i :ii, was fed 
to steers in contrast with a balanced ration having 
a nutritive ration of 1 16.5. The average of three 
trials showed that 28 per cent less feed was re- 



^ PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

quired for a given increase in weight with the bal- 
anced ration. In an experiment at the Nebraska 
Experiment Station with yearling steers, it was 
found that, to make the same gain, 29 per cent less 
food was required with corn and alfalfa than with 
corn and prairie hay, and the alfalfa was no more 
expensive. In another lot where oil-meal, a rich pro- 
tein food, was added to corn and prairie hay, 25 per 
cent less total food was required for a given gain. 
The experiment stations of Illinois and Missouri 
have recently shown the advantage of corn and 
clover over corn and timothy in as striking contrast. 

Nor have the tests been confined to fattening cat- 
tle alone. Experiments with sheep, swine and dairy 
cows show that much larger returns are made when 
the rations are compounded in a way that will fur- 
nish the nutrients in a proportion somewhere near 
the requirements as determined by scientific meth- 
ods. 

Feeding Standards. — During past years certain 
German investigators have formulated what are 
called feeding standards. These standards prescribe 
the amount of digestible nutrients needed per day 
for the development of the various classes of farm 
animals at diflferent stages of growth, calculated per 
1,000 pounds live weight. The following table is a 
part of one proposed by Wolff and Lehmann, and 
has been in general use for many years: 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FOODS. 



25 



^S 



Growing cattle 3 to 6 

Growing cattle 6 to 12 

Growing cattle 12 to 18 

Fattening cattle (first pe 

riod) 

Cattle (maintenance ra 

tion) 

Horse (heavy work) ... 

Growing swine | 2 to 3 

Growing swine I 3 to 5 

Fattening swine (first pe-| 

riod) I 

Brood sows ' 

Growing sheep | 4 to 6 

Fattening sheep (first pe-l 

riod) ! 

Milch cows, 22 lbs. milk I 

per day 

Milch cows, 27.5 lbs. milki 

per day | 



Digestible nutrients. 



t^2 

M a 

Q 






W 



Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 



(1 .-I 



24 
25 
24 

30 

18 
26 
44 
35 

36 
22 
26 

30 

29 



3.5 
2.5 

2 


12.8 
13.2 
12.5 


1.5 

-.1 


2.5 


15 


.5 


.7 
2.5 
7.6 
5 


8 
13.3 
28 
23.1 


.1 

.8 
.1 

.8 


4.5 
2.5 
4.4 


25 

15.5 

15.5 


.7 
.4 
.9 


3 


15 


.5 


2.5 


13 


.5 


3.3 


13 


.8 



1: 4.7 

1: 6 

1: 6.8 

1: 6.5 

1:11.8 

1: 6 

1: 4 

1: 5 

1: 5.9 

1: 6.6 

1: 4 

1: 5.4 

1: 5.7 

1: 4.5 



As indicated by the table a young animal needs 
more protein, and consequently a more narrow nu- 
tritive ratio, than an older one. This is because the 
young animal is building bone and flesh, rather than 
fat. As the animal approaches maturity, there is 
less call for nutrients to develop framework, and 
more for fat tissue and maintenance needs. 

To make clearer the relation of foods to animal 
requirements with reference to the digestible nutri- 
ents, a chart is given below showing the proportion 
of protein, or nitrogenous constituents, to starches, 
fats, etc., called non-nitrogenous, in each of several 
common foodstuffs. These foods are arranged in 
their order according to the relative richness of each 
food in protein, the one richest in this nutrient 
being placed at the top and the one lowest in pro- 
tein at the bottom. 



25 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 




O t/5 



= o 






C/3 



fc.E 
O i« 

W c 



(/I o 
(U o 

O CI- 



TS 

'^^ ^ c 

TJ -i«: O 
<U C C 
C ,«> O 

Q I- O 



o 



z 



:^s 



oo 

3 . 



c ?^ 

CQ 
o ^ 



> 



C/l 



cu 

(X) 



oo 



c 

=1 



>s 

X 
«J ■ 

o 



oo 



O 



o> <OLi: 



i£$l 



> 

O 

Q.-D 






i2 ^ 



(Z<^^0> 



DIGESTIBLE AUTKIENTiJ. 



27 



Jiuiuiyyuk 



uu 



-.2 <=> 
11 -^ 








<y- 

<=> 
00 


06 


•so 
00 



CXJ 






— — c*^ 


f^ 0^ — \0 C^ 


c» 


VO 




CNI CNI CVJ 


•<3- ■>*- in vo 00 o"^ <o 


CNI 











|« :-^^_;_:_:-__-^ :^- 



vi 2 
Si: 



a 
c 



C/0 



&) 



DO y 0) 

»- ^' -n 



C „ QJ ■" 

w = 



DO, ■) 

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4) 
C -D 



O 
O 

-o 

c 



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>^>J5 ^"^ ^5^ g'o ^^ 20^ fee ^b^ fe«^> 

o^>U-oQi«ico<DacoOoQ-i.ci.Ou-Ol-a.Oi<i:coO> 



o E 
O J 



CO 4) 
« -C 



28 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

The nutritive ratio i :7, which is approximately 
correct for the needs of the average fattening- ani- 
mal, makes a convenient dividing line between the 
two classes of foods. The upper page shows that 
there are several foods containing a proportion of 
protein in excess of the requirements of fattening 
animals. It is apparent to the reader that if a 
starchy food, like corn, is fed, something from the 
upper part of the column containing protein in 
excess should go with it. This might be a rough- 
ness, like alfalfa or clover. If two starchy foods, 
like corn and limothy or prairie hay, are largely 
used, one of the concentrated protein foods near 
the head of the column should be fed. There are 
certain foods near the middle, oats and wheat, for 
example, which in themselves approximate closely 
to balanced rations for fattening stock ; but they 
are often too high priced to be used economically, 
at least as the major part of a ration. For this 
reason it is better economy to select some of the 
cheaper foods below, and balance them with one 
or more of the more concentrated protein foods 
near the top of the column, the choice depending 
upon the price. 

Methods of Calculating Rations. — While the 
above table gives a fair idea of what foods would 
together constitute a balanced ration, greater accu- 
racy may be obtained by the usual mathematical 
calculation of such rations. To calculate a ration 
for a fattening steer weighing say 900 pounds, for 
the third period of feeding, the procedure would be 
as follows: The requirements for a 1,000-pound 
steer, as given in the German standards in the ap- 
pendix, are, for the third period, dry matter, 26 
pounds; protein, 2.7 pounds; carbohydrates, 15 
pounds ; and fat, or ether extract, .7 pound. A 900- 
pound steer would require about ,9 of each of these 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FOODS. 29 

amounts, which would be : dry matter, 23.4 pounds ; 
protein, 2.43 pounds; carbohydrates, 13.5 pounds; 
and fat, .6^ pounds. Inasmuch as the average 
ration contains about 15 per cent water, there 
would be required for 23.4 pounds of dry mat- 
ter nearly 30 pounds of feed. For a fattening steer, 
of this 30 pounds, about 20 pounds should consist of 
concentrates and 10 pounds of roughness. Assum- 
ing that timothy hay and corn stover are most avail- 
able for roughness, we shall use about 5 pounds of 
each. According to Table II, in the Appendix, there 
are 2.8 pounds of digestible protein in 100 pounds of 
timothy hay. In i pound of timothy there will be 
(2.8-^-IOo) .028 pound of protein and in 5 pounds of 
timothy there will be (5X-028 pound) .14 pound 
of digestible protein. Computing in the same way 
the other nutrients in timothy hay, we have (43.4-f- 
100X5) 2.17 pounds of carbohydrates, and (1.4-r- 
100X5) -O? pound of fat. In 5 pounds of corn 
stover there are (1.7^-100X5) .085 pound of pro- 
tein, (32.4-^-100X5) 1-62 pounds carbohydrates, 
and (.7^-100X5) -035 pound fat. If the grain ra- 
tion consists entirely of corn, say 20 pounds, we 
shall have from that source (7.9-^-100X20) 1.58 
pounds protein, (66.7^-100X20) 13.34 pounds car- 
bohydrates, and (4.3-^100X20) .86 pound fat. Com- 
bining these foods in a talkie and adding the nutri- 
ents together, we have : 

Carbo- Nutritive 

Ration. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Corn, 20 lbs 1.58 13.34 .86 

Timothy, 5 lbs 14 2.17 .07 

Corn-stover, 5 lbs 08 1.62 .03 

Total 1.80 17.13 .96 1:10.7 



Wolff-Lehmann standard for 

900 lb. steer 2.4 13.5 .6 1 : 6.2 

Comparing the nutrients in the above ration with 

the standard, it will be seen that there is a deficiency 



30 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

of .6 pound of protein and an excess of 3.6 pounds 
of carbohydrates and .3 pound of fat. It will, there- 
fore, be necessary to introduce into the grain ration 
some concentrated protein food, like oil-meal or 
cottonseed-meal, reducing at the same time the car- 
bohydrates by feeding less corn. Following is the 
second trial ration : 

Carbo- Nutritive 

Eation. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Corn, 16 lbs ..1.34 10.67 .73 

Oil-meal, 3 lbs 88 .98 .21 

Timothy, 5 lbs .14 2.17' .07 

Corn-stover, 5 lbs 08 1.62 .03 

Total 2.4 15.4 1.0 1:7.3 



WolfF-Lehmann standard 2.4 13.5 .6 A: 6.2 

In the second ration we have the correct amount 
of protein, but an excess of 1.9 pounds of carbohy- 
drates and .4 pound fat, the entire ration giving 
a nutritive ration of i 17.3, instead of i :6.2 as speci- 
fied in the standard. Were it desirable to approach 
the German standard more closely, it would be pos- 
sible to add 34 pound of oil-meal and reduce the 
corn ^ pounds. Inasmuch as i pound of oil-meal 
contains about three times as much protein as i 
pound of corn, we would still have the correct 
amount of protein in the ration and somewhat less 
of the carbohydrates and fats. But for American 
conditions we find a slight excess of carbohydrates 
and fats desirable, and we have also recently found 
that less protein than the German standard calls for 
is needed. Corn is our least expensive concentrate 
and we are justified in making a very large use of 
it, even though a small amount of starch should be 
wasted.. In making up rations for profitable feed- 
ing, prices on foodstuffs must be given just as much 
consideration as food composition. For average 
Western conditions, a ration as wide as i 7.3 is more 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FOODS. 7,1 

profitable than i :6.2 for fairly mature animals of 
any kind, and in America the evidence points to the 
fact that a good ration having a nutritive ratio of 
1 :7.3 will produce just as much gain per weight of 
food consumed, regardless of expense, as a more 
narrow one for fattening any class of stock approach- 
ing maturity, or for dairy cows. 

For American conditions, the protein requirement 
as given in the German standards may be reduced 
ID per cent, furnishing, for example, 2.25 pounds 
where 2.5 pounds are called for. Why this is recom- 
mended will be better understood later. 

Quantity of Food Supplied. — No matter how 
carefully a ration may be compounded with refer- 
ence to the balance of nutrients, it will not prove an 
economical one unless supplied in a quantity that 
will meet the full requirements of the animal. In 
order to show that underfeeding any animal is an 
extravagant practice, it will be necessary to refer to 
the maintenance ration, which has been described 
as the food required to furnish body heat and 
to support all natural functions, such as heart ac- 
tion, lung expansion, etc., without permitting a loss 
of weight and without producing gain in weight. 
Approximately half of a full ration is required for 
maintenance, only the second half being used for 
growth or other production. If this second half is 
cut in two, the animal receiving but three-fourths of 
a full ration, the gain in weight is but half of what 
it would be from a full ration. It is apparent, there- 
fore, that any reduction from a full feed results in a 
much larger consumption of food for a given in- 
crease in weight, or a given flow of milk. But while 
a full feed is always desirable, the reader should not 
interpret this to mean that a full feed of grain is 
always the most economical. With dry cows, stock 
cattle, and other animals which are not being forced 



32 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

for heavy production, the proportion of roughness 
should be made large. It is better economy to re- 
quire such animals to derive the greater part or all 
of their nourishment from crude material, than to 
give them less roughness than they are capable of 
using, supplying grain for further needs. No farm 
animal will get more nourishment than is needed 
for any purpose on a full feed of some forms of 
roughness. The gains or performance desired should 
be controlled by the character of the ration, rather 
than by underfeeding, at least on average farms, 
where cheap roughness, in the shape of cornstalks, 
hay, etc., is always on hand. The question of pro- 
portion of grain to roughness will be discussed 
in connection with each of the various classes of 
animals, inasmuch as the requirements differ not 
only with the several classes but also at the differ- 
ent stages in the development of any individual 
animal. 

Palatability. — Rations must not only furnish the 
necessary amount of digestible nutrients, but must 
also be palatable to the animal. This is especially 
true where rapid gains or a large milk flow is de- 
sired. Hay should not be overripe, discolored, or 
mouldy. Grain should not be musty, or ground and 
then placed in heaps where it becomes tainted by 
decomposing oil. Feed boxes should be free from 
foulness. A ration becomes less palatable when lim- 
ited to few foods. A variety of foods is more appe- 
tizing, and is therefore always desirable for all 
classes of animals, which applies to roughness as 
well as to concentrates. 

That the flow of digestive juices is augmented 
and digestion made more active through the influ- 
ence of palatability in food, is well shown by the 
work of Pawlow, the Russian physiologist, as re- 
viewed by Forbes in Bulletin 65 of the Missouri 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FOODS. 33 

Experiment Station : 

"The idea that the secretion of the digestive juices 
is controlled by the nervous system and is suscepti- 
ble of influence by sensory impressions was first ad- 
vanced by F. Bidder and C. Schmidt in 1852, but 
has since been demonstrated many times over in a 
great number of physiological laboratories. Fore- 
most among students of the physiology of the di- 
gestive organs is J. P. Pawlow, of St. Petersburg, 
Russia. He and his associates have advanced and 
experimentally proven many revolutionary ideas 
concerning the work of the digestive glands. Their 
experiments have been very largely with dogs, 
which are anaesthetized and operated upon in order 
to fit them for these studies. 

"The various operations to which dogs are sub- 
jected are as follows: (i) In order to obtain the 
salivary secretions with purity, the ducts leading 
from the secreting glands are brought to the sur- 
face and healed into openings in the skih in such 
manner that they discharge their secretions exter- 
nally. (2) In order to get pure gastric juice, the 
oesophagus is cut across, the lower end closed and 
the upper end, which connects with the mouth, is 
brought to the surface and healed into an opening 
in the skin, so that food upon being swallowed 
passes, directly out of the body through this hole 
in the neck and falls into the dish from which it is 
eaten. Dogs thus operated upon eat the same food 
over and over again, by the hour, with every evi- 
dence of satisfaction and often live the usual length 
of life in perfect health. The pure, unmixed gastric 
juice is withdrawn when wanted for study by way 
of a direct opening made through the abdominal 
wall into the stomach. This opening is closed with 
a metallic cannula. Through it the animal is given 
its nourishment. (3) Further, a small portion of 



34 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

the Stomach may be made into a pouch, also open- 
ing externally, so that the secreting surfaces, for- 
merly on the inside of the stomach and still acting 
in harmony with it, are accessible from the outside, 
though all communication between this pouch and 
the remainder of the stomach is cut off. (4) An 
opening into the intestine similar to that made into 
the stomach and similarly closed by a metallic can- 
nula, makes possible a study of digestion in this 
organ. (5) The work of the pancreas may be 
studied by bringing the pancreatic duct, with the 
portion of the intestine surrounding its opening, to 
the surface and stitching it into an opening in the 
skin, as in the case of the ducts from the salivary 
glands. 

"Studies upon dogs thus prepared give evidence of 
the fact that any sensory impression, as through see- 
ing, smelling or tasting, which suggests to the dog 
the idea of food, causes a secretion of the digestive 
juices. This reflex secretion caused by the sugges- 
tion of food is called the 'psychic secretion,' and an 
allowance of food chewed as usual, but swallowed di- 
rectly out of the body by way of the oesophageal fis- 
tula, is called a 'false meal.' 

"The fact of the psychic secretion of gastric juice 
was first observed by Richet in 1878, but by many 
others since that time. The operation of gastrot- 
omy has been successfully accomplished on a dog 
at the University of Missouri and this psychic se- 
cretion is easily demonstrable with this subject. 
J. B. Pawlow has found that the more eagerly a dog 
indulges in the 'false meal' above described, the 
greater will be the amount and digestive power of 
the gastric secretion. The sensation of keen hunger 
seems to enrich the psychic secretion of gastric 
juice, both in acid and in pepsin. This fact is of 
great importance to the stock feeder, indicating, as 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN F00D3. 35 

it does, that a keen appetite is requisite to most effi- 
cient digestion. 

"Dr. Chigin, whose work is freely quoted by 
Pawlow, has found that during the eating of the 
'false meal' the amount of gastric juice secreted is 
proportionate to the amount and palatability of the 
food eaten. He finds that dogs usually prefer raw 
meat to cooked meat and accordingly secrete more 
gastric juice during a 'false meal' of the former 
than of the latter. Some dogs, however, prefer that 
the meat be cooked and these are found to secrete 
more juice during the 'false meal' of the cooked 
meat. Similarly, certain dogs prefer bread to meat 
and such individuals secrete more juice during a 
'false meal' of bread, though with most dogs the 
preference and the abundant secretion of gastric 
juice are with the meat. 

"To understand just how palatability affects diges- 
tibility cannot fail to impress upon us the impor- 
tance of considering thiis characteristic of the foods 
we offer to our live stock, and also the futility of trying 
to get the greatest profit out of feeding stock upon 
foods which they do not regard with favor." 

Regularity in Feeding. — In feeding farm animals, 
other things are to be considered besides food supply. 
The temperament of domestic animals is such as to 
make irregularities often disastrous, so far as gains 
are concerned. Each animal should be given its 
allowance as nearly at the same hour each day as is 
possible. The digestive system adapts itself to re- 
ceive food at a certain time. If it does not appear 
at the usual time, the animal begins to worry and 
loses thereby. Grain feeding twice each day, morn- 
ing and night, is sufficient for old animals, with the 
exception of horses and swine, which should or- 
dinarily be fed three times a day. 

Irregularity in amount fed produces irregularity in 



36 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

the secretion of digestive fluids, and may even pro- 
duce sickness, as when an unusually large feed is 
put before the animal. 

Water. — All animals should be supplied with an 
abundance of pure water. They should never be al- 
lowed to become over thirsty. Such treatment causes 
worry, and when the thirst is satisfied, the abnormal 
amount of water in the system produces unnecessary 
waste of tissues through the kidneys. 

Quietness and Contentment. — In the care of farm 
animals, the attendant should remember that quiet- 
ness and contentment are always conducive to best 
results in both meat and milk production. To this 
end every effort should be made to avoid disturbance 
of any kind, whether it be loud talking, barking 
dogs, or free use of clubs. The latter practice is a 
most condemnable one. 

Exercise. — Farm animals should not be deprived 
of exercise. Health and vigor are promoted where 
an animal is permitted to move about, in this way 
stimulating the circulatory blood flow and throwing 
ofif waste matter that might otherwise accumulate in 
the system. Exercise is especially needed by young 
animals. 

What has been said concerning foods applies in a 
general way to all farm animals. For the details, each 
class of animals must be treated separately. Dairy 
cattle will be discussed first, because the cow log- 
ically precedes the beef steer. The discussion of 
beef cattle will be followed by chapters on the other 
classes of meat animals, which in turn will be fol- 
lowed by chapters on horse feeding. 



PART II 

MILK PRODUCTION 

CHAPTER V. 

THE DAIRY COW. 

The United States is becoming more and more a 
dairy country, which is but a natural adjustment to 
changed conditions. As our population grows, more 
food is required to sustain it, of which food a consid- 
erable portion will always consist of animal products 
of some sort. One animal product can be substituted 
for another in the human dietary much more success- 
fully than can plant products be substituted for them. 
This refers more particularly to the use of milk, butter, 
cheese and eggs rather than cereals and vegetables 
as meat substitutes. One pound of nutriment in 
milk can be produced from very much less food than 
is required for one pound of nutriment in meat, 
though this is partially oflfset by the fact that milk 
requires the expenditure of more labor for its pro- 
duction. 

To illustrate by means of figures what has been 
said concerning the production of milk and meat from 
a given weight of food, the following comparison is 
made in terms of heat units, which is considered a fair 
estimate of real food values. The heat unit univer- 
sally used is called the calorie, which represents the 
heat required to raise the temperature of four pounds 
of water through one degree Fahrenheit. One pound 
of either protein or carbohydrates contains i860 calor- 

» 



38 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

ies, while one pound of fat contains 4220 calories. 
Using the Wolff-Lehmann standards for a 1000- 
poiind cow giving 12 quarts (22 pounds) of milk per 
day and a looo-pound steer gaining 15 pounds per 
week, it will be found that the cow's daily ration 
contains 30,940 calories, from which she makes milk 
containing 9,334 calories ; and that the steer's daily 
ration contains 34,660 calories, from which he makes 
meat containing 6,045 calories. One calorie in milk 
requires, therefore, (30,940-^9,334) 3.3 calories in the 
food, while one calorie in the beef requires (34,66o-^- 
6,045) 5-4 calories in the food. This shows that 64 
per cent more energy is expended by the steer in 
elaborating food in the form of meat than is ex- 
pended by the cow in elaborating the same quantity 
in the form of milk. The dairy industry, therefore, 
is bound to grow as the population of the world in- 
creases and the demand for meat forces prices up- 
wards, and as labor connected with dairying be- 
comes correspondingly more plentiful and less 
costly, making milk products much more econom- 
ically produced than at present. 

The dairy cow is a machine, as it were, for con- 
verting foodstuffs into milk. Unlike the beef animal, 
which is its own storehouse, placing its product within 
its carcass, the dairy cow gives up each day that which 
she produces. She has been developed along lines 
quite the opposite from those of the beef animal. In 
her development, performance, as indicated by the 
quality and quantity of milk given, has been the chief 
guide in making selections. The most perfect beef 
cows are not economical milkers and the best dairy 
cows are not satisfactory beef makers. The two func- 
tions are quite different, making it impossible to de- 
velop both to the highest degree in one animal. The 
cow to be most profitable from a dairy point of 
view must be able to secrete the largest quantity of 
milk from the least expenditure for food. 



THE DAIRY COW. 39 

Dairy Type. — In no farm animal docs type or in- 
dividuality affect profits more than in the dairy cow. 
It ordinarily costs no more to feed a cow which will 
produce 300 lbs. of butter per year than one which will 
produce but 150 lbs. A difference of 150 lbs. per year 
for a period of six years, making a total of 900 lbs. in 
favor of the better cow, is a matter which cannot con- 
sistently be ignored by the farmer, and this range in 
production among the individuals of a herd is not un- 
usual. 

The Minnesota Experiment Station has furnished 
valuable data to show the relative economy of dif- 
ferent types of cows, as given below. Individual 
records would show a still greater contrast. 



Group. .a "". y 



(13 <D — 1 . ai '♦H a ' 

o--- >-^ b^ ^ ^^"^^ b^ " • 

I. Beef type 3 1,240 20.81 16.66 31.25 17.5 

II. Less of beef type... 4 945 20.37 21.02 26.42 15.1 
III. Lacking depth of 

body 3 875 19.95 23.00 25.54 14.6 

IV. Dairy type 12 951 21.86 23.58 21.15 12.1 

At the Connecticut Experiment Station it was 
found that the average of several cows of dairy type 
produced milk at a cost of $0.69 per hundred, where- 
as cows beefy in type produced milk at a cost of 
$1.00 per hundred. The South Dakota Station, in a 
recent test, found that the beef cows required one- 
third more grain for each pound of milk than did the 
dairy cows. This difference is not necessarily be- 
tween beef and dairy breeds, as individuals within 
one of the special purpose dairy breeds very com- 
monly show a contrast as striking. It is purely a 
question of individual capacity, which is usually 
associated with a certain conformation of body, 
called dairy type. Such types are most commonly 



40 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

found in so-called dairy breeds, of which the Jersey, 
Holstein-Friesian and Guernsey are the most com- 
mon in America. 

The body of the dairy cow should be deep and 
roomy, especially in the abdominal region where diges- 
tion, assimilation, and milk secretion largely take 
place. Unlike the beef cow, which is more box like in 
form, the dairy cow approaches more nearly the 
wedge shape, in that she is comparatively narrow in 
front, widening out and deepening toward the rear. 
The dairy cow consumes a large proportion of 
roughage and therefore needs a large paunch, or 
barrel. 

Whereas it is desirable to have the beef animal 
closely knit and compact in type for early maturity 
and quick fleshing qualities, the dairy cow should 
be more loosely constructed. Her head and neck 
should correlate with her body, all being rather long 
in proportion to her size. Both the ribs and vertebrae 
of the back should be wide spaced. The hip bones 
should be sharp and prominent, the rump narrow and 
sloping, giving an angular appearance in the region of 
the pelvic bones. The twist, or space between the hind 
legs, should be open to give room for a large and 
evenly quartered udder. The milk vein extending 
from the udder forward to the middle of the abdomen 
should also be large. 

The score-card enumerates other points in judging 
the dairy cow, many of which are of minor significance 
to the practical dairyman. The dairy cow should 
never become heavy in flesh even with a most liberal 
feeding. To be a most perfect machine she must con- 
vert practically all of her food, above maintenance, 
into milk, putting on just enough flesh to give her 
needed protection. The bony, angular appearance 
of the cow large in paunch is not always pleasing 
to the eye, but it means profit to the owner. 



THE DAIRY COW. 



41 




Good (laiiv type — His>h • grade Jersey, weight 725 lbs.: ayerage 
yearly" record. 1 .S!t7-10(i2. butter :'.<;<» llts.. milk 7,?.7.S lbs. 




Inferior daily type — High grade Jersey, weight 750 lbs. ; record 
one year, 1899, butter 62 lbs., milk 1,279 lbs. 



42 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

The Score-Card for Dairy Cows, as arranged by 
Prof. T. L. Haecker, is a deduction from observa- 
tions made on the University of Minnesota herd, 
covering twelve years' work, during which time 
complete records were kept of food consumed and 
products yielded by each cow, these being com- 
pared with her conformation. 

Scale of points for dairy cows, as arranged by Haecker of 
the Minnesota Experiment Station: 
Temperament — 30. (founts. 

1. Eye, full, expressive 5 

2. Face, clean, rather long, nostrils open, large...... 3 

3. Neck, light, rather long, ' ' ewe necked " . . . 3 

4. Withers, sharp 3 

5. Shoulders, light, spare 3 

6. Spinal column, prominent 4 

7. Croup, strong, high, sharp 4 

8. Hip points, sharp, low 1 

9. Pin bones, sharp, far apart I 

10. Thighs, spare, incurving 3 

Feeding Powers — 25. 

1. Body, deep through the middle 10 

2. Body, broad through the middle 8 

3. Body, long from shoulder to hips 5 

4. Muzzle, broad 1 

5. Jaws, strong ' 1 

Disposition — 12. 

1. Eye, placid, not too open 5 

2. Face, straight, broad between eyes 2 

3. Head, carried not too high nor too low 2 

4. Movement of eyes, ears and body rather slow 3 

Mammary Organs — 13. 

1. Udder, large, well balanced 6 

2. Teats, long, not conical, well spaced 2 

3. Milk veins, prominent, long, tortuous 2 

4. Milk wells, capacious ' . . 3 

Quality— 12. 

1. Per cent fat in milk 6 

2. Coat, fine, soft, rather oily 2 

3. Skin, rather firm and medium thin 2 

4. Yellow in cars 2 

Symmetry — 8. 

1. Bony structure, fine 2 

2. Tailhead, straight, tail tapering 1 

3. Medium breadth across hips and loins V2 

4. Medium length from hips to pin bones Vj 

ij. Full in region of heart 1 

6. Flank, high, arching 2 

7. Legs, straight and rather short 1 

Perfection 100 



THE DAIRY COW. 



43 




Fig. 3. 

Good Dairy Types. 

Fig. 1. Ilolstein cow, record in 1004. at 4 vears of age : butter, 

4(38 lbs. : milk, 10,896 lbs. 
Fig. 2. Grade Shorthorn-Jersey cow, record in 1901, at (3 years 

of age : butter, 470 lbs. ; milk, 9,419 lbs. 

Fig. 3. Pure-bred Shorthorn cow, record in 1903, at 5 years of 

age : butter, 418 lbs. ; milk, 7,537 lbs. 



44 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

CANADIAN SCORE-CARD. 

Suggested Scale of Points — Bulls. 
Dairy Temperament. Points. 

Head, lean^ masculine in appearance and of fine 

contour 3 

Neck, thin, rather long, evve-necked 3 

Shoulders, light and spare, withers sharp 3 

Croups, high, straight and sharp 2 

Spine and ribs, spine prominent, but not to same de- 
gree as in cow, vertebrge and ribs open spaced .... 3 

Thighs, thin and incurving, flank high 3 

Pelvic arch, prominent, strong and sharp 2 

Tail, long and tapering 1 

— 20 
Feeding Powers. 

Barrel, depth from line of back to navel 10 

Barrel, length of body from shoulder to hook points. 7 

Barrel, breadth of body through middle 6 

Muzzle, broad ; jaw strong 2 

— 25 
Disposition. 

Eyes, large, prominent, bright, intelligent and placid 3 

Face, broad between eyes 1 

Movement of ears and body, rather slow ; not restless 1 

— 5 
Quality. 

Skin, loose, thin, mellow, with fine soft hair 6 

Skin, deep yellow in ears and on and around escutcheon 4 

— 10 
Dairy Indications. 

Embryo teats, not less than four well developed em- 
bryo teats, well forward and wide apart, with 
amplitude of skin on rear part of underline 3 

Escutcheon, high and wide 2 

— 5 
Constitution. 

Chest, d'3ep, wide through' heart; full behind and a 

little above elbows ; large girth of chest 6 

Nostrils, large ; open 2 

Loins, broad 2 

— 10 
Symmetry. 

Horns, not large nor coarse ; curved ; white with black 
tips or vice versa 1 

Legs, rather short ; straight and well placed 2 

Color, black or very dark brown, with or without 
brown, fawn or cream colored muzzle, and an or- 
• ange -brown or gray stripe on back 10 

General appearance, including style add movement. . 12 

— 25 

100 



THE DAIRY COW. 45 

Winter Milk Production Can be Made Most 
Profitable, — The farmer who keeps a fair-sized herd 
of cows will ordinarily finrl that there is more profit in 
having them fresh in the tall than in the spring. ( i ) 
Butter is worth from 25 to 50 per cent more in winter 
than in summer. (2) Dairying requires labor, which 
is much cheaper in winter than in summer. (3) With 
good housing facilities and rather high-priced land, 
farm foods are nearly as economically used in winter 
as pasture is in summer. In fact with alfalfa, which 
cannot be pastured, and corn silage, we have winter 
foods quite as cheap as summer pasture. (4) Cows 
which have produced milk all winter tend to keep up 
the flow when turned on fresh grass in the spring, 
drying ofif as hot weather, dry pastures and trouble- 
some flies come in late summer, that season of the 
year when it is most difficult to make cows comfortable 
and productive. Ex-Governor Hoard of Wisconsin, 
one of the most successful dairymen in the United 
States, is authority for the statement that cows will 
produce from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds more milk, when 
fresh in the fall rather than in the spring. Nor are 
the advantages in favor of winter dairying confined 
to the cow. The farmer has much more time at his 
disposal for feeding skim-milk calves in winter, and 
the calves can be made to do better on winter foods 
as supplements to milk than on watery grass at a 
season of the year when flies are extremely annoy- 
ing to young calves. At weaning time in the spring 
they are old enough to gain their entire subsistence 
from grass, thus receiving bulky food at a period 
when most needed. 

Winter Shelter. — The function of milk secretion 
in the cow is one which seems to be very susceptible 
to temperature changes. Either extreme, excessively 
hot or excessively cold weather, causes a shrinkage 
in milk flow, and while the latter is more harmful in 



46 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

its effects, it can be more easily controlled. The dairy 
cow needs artificial protection from cold weather, 
because she has no surplus fat about her body to 
hold the warmth within. In this she is very unlike 
the beef steer. The weather would have to be very 
frigid indeed to make a fat steer hump its back, 
while such a thing in the dairy cow is a very com- 
mon sight — far too common. Were one in a posi- 
tion to fully realize the consequences of such dis- 
comfort to the cow, the practice of running the herd 
in the stalk fields or other exposed places during 
cold weather would be quickly abandoned. 

The Hollanders keep their cows sheltered day and 
night during the winter months. Their success as a 
dairy people would lead one to believe that their judg- 
ment in this matter must be good. For American con- 
ditions, the consensus of opinion among our success- 
ful practical dairymen, as well as investigators, is that 
dairy cows should be provided with warm, but ven- 
tilated shelters, whether these be modern barns or 
inexpensive straw hovels. Nor should cows be ex- 
pected to rough the weather during the day. Cows 
are better off in the barn on cold days, though a well 
protected and well bedded shed, which permits the 
cattle to roam at will, is more satisfactory, because 
in such sheds coarse feed can be handled to better 
advantage. 

Barn stalls should be provided with gutters which 
carry off liquid manure, and at the same time keep 
the cows clean. This they do especially well 
when the mangers are built on a slant in such a 
way as to force the cows to step back Avhen stand- 
ing, the tie compelling them to move forward when 
about to lie down. Floors are sometimes made of 
cement, which is more lasting and easier to keep 
clean, but colder in winter than plank floors. 
Stanchions are still used, though some sort of a tie, 



THE DAIRY COW. 47 

or a chain behind, gives them more freedom and 
therefore more comfort. 

Tlie work connected with the management of a 
dairy herd is great enough to make it worth while 
to have arrangements for feeding and cleaning sta- 
bles as convenient as possible. The manure may 
be placed in heaps near the barn, but with several 
cows, it involves less labor in the end to haul and 
scatter the manure each day where it is wanted in 
the field. Bedding should always be used freely. 

Water tanks are sometimes placed inside where 
the temperature is such as to keep the water sufficiently 
warm. If the tanks are placed outside, a good tank 
heater should be used. These are small contrivances 
which can be purchased for a few dollars. They not 
only save the labor of cutting out the ice each day, 
but also warm the water to such a degree as will 
encourage cows to drink freely, thus promoting milk 
secretion. Cows which will not drink water because of 
its chilling efifects can not do their best. The cost of 
fuel used by tank heaters, whether coal or wood, is 
quite insignificant in comparison with their value 
during cold weather. 



CHAPTER VI. 

FUNDAMENTALS IN FEEDING THE DAIRY 
COW. 

The quantity of milk produced by the cow depends 
upon the amount and character of feed supplied, as 
well as upon her individual equipment. Here man's 
skill makes itself manifest in supplying her wants most 
perfectly, or his ignorance is exposed in failing to meet 
her requirements. All cows should be permitted to do 
their best, which can only be done when external 
conditions are made favorable for a maximum pro- 
duction. 

The economical conversion of food into milk re- 
quires (i) that the nutrients be supplied in a quan- 
tity that will fully satisfy the needs of the cow and in 
proportions that will make possible the utilization of 
all without undue loss ; (2) that they come from in- 
expensive sources, which means the use of rough- 
ness to the extent that its bulk does not seriously 
interfere with nutritive processes, and ialso the use 
of less costly^ concentrates, so long as they meet, or 
at least closely approach, physiological require- 
ments; and (3) that at least a part of the ration be 
of a succulent nature. 

Quantity of Food. — It has already oeen mentioned 
that animals require about half of a full feed for sim- 
ple maintenance. It will be noted that the German 
standards call for eighteen pounds of dry matter for 
a 1,000-pound steer at rest, which if true would be 
approximately correct for the dairy cow. These stan- 
dards also call for thirty-two pounds of dry matter for 
a cow giving a large milk flow. Since it is this extra 

48 



FUNDAMENTALS IN FEEDING THE DAIRY COW. 49 

fourteen pounds which produces the milk, it is appar- 
ent that Hberal feeding is more economical than under- 
feeding. The more feed consumed, the more economi- 
cal is the production, so long as the digestive system 
is not deranged by overcrowding, which is not likely 
to occur when roughness is used liberally. The 
farmer should be heedful that the cow§ have all 
they want, and yet are not permitted to waste feed 
by having too much supplied at one time. 

In respect to nutrients it may be said that the 
German standards call for .7 lb. of protein for simply 
maintaining a i,ooo-lb. cow. If she is giving 22 lbs. 
of milk per day, there will be required about .9 lb. 
of protein to produce the casein and albumen of the 
milk. A certain amount of protein is also consumed 
by the animal organism in the process of milk forma- 
tion. The old and accepted standards formulated by 
Wolff and others specify that a i,ooo-lb. cow giving 
22 lbs. of milk per day needs, in all. 2^ lbs. of pro- 
tein per day. If this is true, it would seem that an 
unreasonably large quantity of protein must be con- 
sumed in the process of milk formation. American 
investigators are advocating less protein, and their 
experiments tend to prove that less than 2.5 lbs. is 
actually needed. Haecker, of the Minnesota Experi- 
ment Station, has recently furnished data to sustain 
this view. In his experiments it was found that a 
daily allowance of 2.63 pounds of protein gave no 
greater milk or butter yield than 2.09 pounds, or 
even 1.9 pounds. In fact, somewhat less total di- 
gestible nutrients were required for the same milk 
and butter yield when the daily ration contained, 
but 1.9 pounds of protein. There was, however, 
with this small protein allowance a daily loss in body 
weight of .13 pound. With the 2.09 pounds of pro- 
tein there was a daily gain of .12 pound, and with 
the 2.63 pounds a daily gain of .20 pound. From 



50 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

those tests it would seem that mature cows produce 
milk more economically with an allowance of pro- 
tein much below the requirements as laid down in 
the German standards, though with the small allow- 
ance of protein (1.9 pounds) in which the nutritive 
ratio was i :io there was a loss of flesh. In the 
words of the investigator: "Each winter the cows 
that have a nutritive ratio of i :io get exceedingly 
poor by spring. The covvS seem to be able to make 
as great return during the winter on a nutritive ratio 
of I :io as they can on a narrower one, but during 
the summer they begin to fail in yield of milk." 
In Haecker's opinion the nutritive ratio for a mature 
milk cow should be about i :8. 

Wol'l, of the Wisconsin Station, made an average 
of the rations fed by fifteen successful dairymen of 
that state, comparing this also with rations in New 
York and Connecticut. His investigations, founded 
on American feeding experience, lead to the conclu- 
sion that a 1,000-pound cow in full flow of milk re- 
quires per day 25.6 pounds dry matter containing 
digestible nutrients in pounds as follows: protein, 
2.2; carbohydrates, 13.3; fat, .8 — nutritive ratio, 
1 :6.9. 

From the fact that each cow in the herds examined 
averaged per year 5,806 pounds of milk and 291 pounds 
of butter, and that the average per cow for the entire 
state of Wisconsin at the time was 125 pounds 
of butter per year, it would seem that the rations fed by 
the fifteen different dairymen must have been good, 
though a part of the difiference was no doubt due to 
the greater individual capacity of the cows in question. 
Investigations at the New Jersey Experiment Station 
show that a nutritive ratio of i :5.4 gave a butter yield 
12.8 per cent larger than a nutritive ratio of i :8.9, 
and that the best yield was made on a nutritive ratio of 
1 :6.5. The Vermont Station found that a nutritive 



FUNDAMENTALS IN FEEDING THE DAIRY COW. 5I 

ratio of i :5.8 gave a 7 per cent better yield than i -.g, 
which would indicate that the best nutritive ratio is a 
little nearer i :5.8 than i :g. An investigator in Den- 
mark reports i :6 as the best. The Connecticut Ex- 
periment Station states that a cow requires from 1.8 
to 2.6 pounds of protein per day, depending upon her 
milk flow. All recent investigations, more particularly 
those in the United States, point to the conclusion that 
the cow needs less protein than is stipulated in the 
German standards. This agrees with Atwater's 
conclusions in his investigations with human diet- 
aries, the difiference between American and Euro- 
pean requirements, in his estimation, being attribut- 
able to the fact that American foods are compara- 
tively low in protein and high in carbohydrates and 
fats. 

Quantity of Milk as a Factor in Determining Food 
Requirements. — in supplying the needs of a cow, 
attention should be given to the quantity of milk 
the cow is capable of producing. It is apparent 
that inasmuch as a relatively small amount of pro- 
tein is needed to maintain the body of the cow 
and the remainder goes to produce milk, the cow 
which gives a large flow of milk needs more protein 
than another giving a relatively small quantity. It is 
likewise true that a cow when fresh and giving a 
large flow requires a higher per cent of protein than 
when well along in lactation. It will be noted that 
in the Standards as printed in the appendix the re- 
quirements are given for cows producing variable 
quantities of milk, which requirements for protein, 
as has been suggested, may reasonably be reduced 
10 per cent for American conditions. 

The per cent of fat produced by a cow is another 
factor which should influence the character of the 
ration. It has been demonstrated at the Cornell 
Station, and elsewhere, that the per cent of butter 



52 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

fat remains almost constant, no matter how the cow 
is fed. In other words, the fat percentage is deter- 
mined by the individual, and not by the feed. Poor 
feeding reduces the flow of milk, lessening thereby 
the total production of butter fat, but the percentage 
is influenced scarcely any by the character of the 
food. The cow, therefore, which tests 5 per cent 
butter fat should have more non-nitrogenous food 
than the cow which tests but 3 per cent butter fat. 
If a ration, perfectly balanced to meet the actual re- 
quirements of a 3 per cent cow, is fed to a 5 per cent 
cow of the same weight, some protein may be con- 
verted into fat, which is an unnecessary expense. On 
the other hand, a ration well balanced for the 5 
per cent cow will be deficient in that nutrient if 
fed to the 3 per cent cow, and a shrinkage in the 
flow of milk will take place. 

Haecker has formulated feeding standards which 
give recognition to quality as well as quantity of 
milk produced by a cow. An abridgement of his 
standard, which goes into considerable detail, is as 
follows : 

Nutrients required for the production of one pound of 

Protein. Carbohydrates. Fat. 

Thin milk 04 .21 .015 

Medium milk 045 .24 .017 

Eich milk 05 .28 .019 

The average farmer might not find it convenient 
to feed each cow a separate ration to accord with 
the per cent of butter fat she produces, though it 
would be practicable to feed a herd in groups if 
there is much variation in the per cent. Whatever 
is herein suggested in the way of rations will be for 
average milk under average conditions. 

Feeding Standards Merely Guides. — From what 
has been said it is apparent that no one knows the ex- 
act requirements for dairy cows or any other class of 



FUNDAMENTALS IN FEEDING THE DAIRY COW. 53 

animals, though from recent investigations, as re- 
viewed above, it would seem that a 1,000-pound cow 
does not require more than 2.2 pounds of protein, 
and that a nutritive ratio between i :6 and i 7. 5, de- 
pending on quantity and quality of milk, gives the 
largest production. It would be folly to attempt to 
follow standards with strict mathematical accuracy, 
owing to individual differences in animals and the 
fact that foodstuff's are likely to vary slightly in 
composition. A standard should be used merely as 
a guide to be followed with reasonable precision, 
yet varied in practice to conform with current prices 
on foodstuff's. 

If a slight deviation is to be made in America, more 
particularly in the West, it should be to supply less pro- 
tein, since our corn and certain rough feeds rich in 
starch are usually so cheap in comparison with 
other foods that we are justified in making a large 
use of them, even though it means a slight waste of 
starch. But it is quite unnecessary to warn against 
feeding protein in excess. The average farmer of 
America shuns the higher priced protein foods to 
such an extent that he more often uses a ration too 
wide (excessively starchy) for the largest or even 
most economical production. 

The Proportion of Roughness to Concentrates. — 
No farm animal is able to utilize a larger amount of 
rough feed for heavy production than the cow. Being 
a ruminant, she has four stomachs, and this gives her 
a large digestive capacity, making her especially 
adapted for the utilization of considerable bulky 
food, which is, of course, much cheaper than grains. 
She becomes uneasy if not supplied wath a certain 
amount of bulk, but if too much is fed, the work of 
milk elaboration is lessened because of the excessive 
expenditure of energy in the act of mastication. 
With average field-cured hay or other fodder, it 



54 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

seems that a cow in full milk is able to produce most 
profitably when the roughness fed amounts to about 
twice the weight of the grain, or concentrated por- 
tion of her ration, though experiment stations 
abroad and in Eastern states have recently shown 
that a little less grain is most economical, especially 
when grain is relatively high in price. It is not 
practicable to weigh roughness, but rather to feed 
the allowance of grain desired, and then provide all 
the rough food that will be consumed in addition. 

Succulent feeds, such as green crops fed freshly 
cut, silage, roots, etc., add so much to the effectiveness 
of a ration for milk production that considerable space 
is given to them elsewhere in this book. No food is 
superior to green grass for milk production. Just 
why this grass dried in the sun and fed in connection 
with water is less desirable, it is difficult to say, 
though it is likely due to lessened pa'latability and 
toughened cellular fibre. Something to take the 
place of green grass to furnish succulence in winter 
is advantageous. 



CHAPTER VII. 

WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 

Corn is chiefly relied upon as the basic part of 
grain rations for dairy cows in America, because (i) 
this plant produces abundantly in nearly all parts of 
the country, particularly in the states comprising the so- 
called corn-belt; (2) it can be grown and harvested 
with comparatively little expense; (3) it is a concen- 
trated source of nutriment; (4) it is extremely pala- 
table ; and (5) it is easily masticated and readily as- 
similated. America alone produces more corn than 
all other countries combined. It is because of this 
heavy production that corn rules lower in price per 
pounds of digestible nutrients than any other concen- 
trated food. But corn alone is not suitable for dairy 
cows, because (i) it is deficient in protein, and (2) 
it is too concentrated. In view of these circum- 
stances, feeding for economical milk production re- 
solves itself into the question of how to supplement 
corn with other foods to make it produce to the best 
advantage. Were corn to be supplemented with 
but one food, that food should be rich enough in 
protein to balance corn, and, further, should be a 
roughness in order to supply the necessary bulk. 
There are four fodder plants belonging to a family 
called Legumes, any one of which will fulfill both 
of the requirements. 

The Legumes include a number of plants which 
have the power of drawing free nitrogen from the air 
and storing it in the roots of the plants. The four re- 
ferred to in common use are alfalfa and clover in 
the North, and cowpeas and soy beans, more com- 

56 



56 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

monly grown in the South. On the roots of these 
plants are little tubercles, varying from the size of 
pinheads on clover and alfalfa to garden peas on 
the cowpea and soy bean. In these tubercles are 
living organisms extremely minute which, in some 
way not well understood, absorb air from the pores 
in the soil, converting the nitrogen therefrom into 
compounds available for plant growth. It is this 
power of absorbing nitrogen which makes these 
legumes rich in protein, and therefore valuable for 
supplementing corn. 

Alfalfa Hay.— Though this hay plant is compara- 
tively new in America, the satisfaction that it has 
given feeders of all classes of stock is so thoroughly 
complete that it is now prominently before the 
public. But while alfalfa is being talked and written 
about over the country, its extensive growth is con- 
fined to a relatively limited section — more particu- 
larly to the arid and semiarid West and territory 
adjacent. It is popular in the arid sections, because 
it does well under irrigation ; it is popular in semi- 
arid parts, because its long roots permit it to flourish 
Vv^hen many other plants succvimb to the dry weather. 
With proper metliods of culture, it is now coming 
into popularity in more eastern or humid sections, 
where it was formerly thought it could not succeed. 
In recognition of its high feeding value, which has 
become thoroughly impressed upon the mind of the 
writer after conducting numerous feeding experi- 
ments, much space in this book is given to its use 
for all classes of stock. Its merit, combined with 
its newness in America, makes it seem wise to en- 
courage its groAvth. by giving a brief description of 
methods of culture in an appendix. 

The chemical analysis of alfalfa shows it to be un- 
usually rich in protein for a hay crop. In order to 
show its merits as a source of protein, the following 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 57 

feeding experiments are reported. 
Alfalfa vs. Commercial Protein Foods. — At the 

New Jersey Experiment Station a test was made 
with two lots of dairy cows, alternating the rations 
during successive periods of fifteen days each, to learn 
the comparative vakie of alfalfa and a combination of 
wheat bran and dried brewers' grains as sources of 
protein. The rations used were as follows : 

Caleu- 
Gostof Dry Total laUd 
rations, matter, protein, nutritive 
Ration T — Cts. Lbs. Lbs. ratio. 

35 pounds silage 4..38 

11 pounds alfalfa hay 3..50 

6 pound? mixed hay 1.60 

2 pounds cotton-seed meal . . 2.60 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 


8.98 


.58 


9.9.5 


1.46 


4.84 


.43 


1.85 


.94 



8.98 


.58 


4.84 


.43 


3.56 


.61 


3.67 


.92 


1.85 


.94 



Total 12.08 25.62 3.41 1:5.6 

Ration II — 

35 pounds silage 4.38 

6 pounds mixed hay 1.60 

4 pounds wheat bran 3.40 

4 poumts dried brewers ' grains 3.40 

2 pounds eotton-seed meal . . 2.60 

Total 15.38 22.90 3.48 1 :5.4 

In this test, the alfalfa ration produced a daily aver- 
age of 20.8 pounds of milk and 1.06 pounds of but- 
ter, while the bran and brewers' grain ration pro- 
duced a daily average of 21.8 pounds of milk and 
1.08 pounds of butter, only a slight difference in 
favor of the more concentrated protein foods. Bran 
and dried brewers' grains each cost $17.00 per ton, 
on which basis alfalfa hay proved to be worth $11.16 
per ton. At the Maryland Station, alfalfa and corn- 
meal gave better results than silage and commer- 
cial foods. Where alfalfa and silage were fed with 
and without grain, the grain proved the more 
economical. 



58 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Experiments at the Tennessee Station indicate 
that iy2 pounds of alfalfa will replace one pound of 
wheat bran (thus confirming the New Jersey re- 
sults) and that three pounds of alfalfa are equivalent 
to one pound of cottonseed meal. 

Alfalfa is not only rich in protein, but is very pala- 
table and easily masticated for a roughness, being con- 
sumed with "little or no waste when well cured. In 
comparing a ration consisting of corn and timothy 
with one containing corn and alfalfa for a 1,000- 
pound cow, we have the following in digestible nu- 
trients: 

Dry Carbo- Nutritive 

matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Com, 10 lbs 8.9 .79 6.67 .43 

Alfalfa, 20 lbs 18.3 2.2 7.9 .24 

Total 27.2 " 2.99 14.57 .67 1 :5.4 

Corn, 10 lbs 8.9 .79 6.67 .43 

Timothy, 20 lbs 17.36 .56 8.68 .28 

Total 26.26 1.35 15.35 .71 1:12.6 

It will thus be seen that the alfalfa ration contains 
really more protein than is necessary, while the tim- 
othy ration is very deficient in protein. 

In a Nebraska test where alfalfa was compared 
with prairie hay, the latter being similar to timothy in 
composition and, as shown by a Minnesota test, equiva- 
lent for feeding purposes, the alfalfa produced 10 
per cent more milk from somewhat less food. Had not 
wheat bran been fed with corn, no doubt the dififer- 
ence in favor of alfalfa would have been still greater. 

Corn stover. — Since alfalfa and corn, as given 
above, furnish more protein than is needed, we 
would be justified in substituting for a part of the al- 
falfa some roughage less rich in protein — unques- 
tionably so when it can be had at less expense. The 
Utah Station found that stalks added to corn and 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 59 

alfalfa gave larger returns per unit of dry matter 
than alfalfa without stalks. With a given yield of 
corn, there accompanies it practically the same 
weight of stover, which, being a by-product, is 
cheaper than alfalfa. Putting with the corn, then, 
the same weight of stalks, or stover, which grew 
with it, and adding 2 lbs, more of alfalfa to partially 
offset the greater water content of corn stalks, we 
have:. 

Dry Carbo- Nutritive 

matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Corn, 10 lbs 8.91 .79 6.67 .43 

Corn stover, 10 lbs... 5.95 .17 3.24 .07 

Alfalfa, 12 lbs 11.00 1.32 4.75 .14 

Total 25.86 2.28 14.66 .64 1:7.0 

Wolff - Lehmann Standard 

for 22 lbs. milk 29. 2.5 13. .5 1:5.7 

Well 's suggested stand- 
ard •. 25.6 2.2 13.3 .8 1:6.9 

While the ration contains somewhat less protein than 
the German standard calls for, it conforms very closely 
to Woll's suggested standard, which, as has been 
shown, is more nearly in accordance with American 
investigations. If wheat bran could be purchased 
at a price per pound not to exceed that of corn, two 
to foor pounds could be introduced as a substitute 
for the same weight of both corn and alfalfa, giving 
variety and more bulk to the grain ration, both of 
which might add to its effectiveness. 

Corn stover, properly cured, is relished by cows and 
has a higher food value than farmers ordinarily give 
it. The corn crop should be cut just as soon as the 
ears are ripe, immediately after the husks become yel- 
low, placed in medium-sized shocks, or stooks, and 
allowed to stand in the field a few weeks, or until 
dry enough to husk, when it can be stacked or put 
into the barn. Some prefer to have the corn husked 
by a machine which also shreds the stalks, making 



6o PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

the latter more easily masticated and the waste 
more useful for bedding. If this can be done without 
adding materially to the expense of husking, it no 
doubt pays, especially when it is to be fed in barns 
where uncut stover would be cumbersome to handle. 
Well-cured corn stover possesses a food value in- 
finitely above that of stalks left standing in the field, 
when a large portion of the starchy matter changes to 
crude fiber, in addition to the loss due to weathering. 
Furthermore, harvested stover can be fed in protected 
yards or barns, obviating the merciless exposure 
— and consequent shrinkage in the milk flow — of the 
cow kept in the stalk field during severe weather. 

Corn fodder, which is the stalk containing the ear, 
is sometimes fed to milch cows. While this prac- 
tice saves the expense of husking, if the corn is all 
fed in this way it is rather difficult to regulate care- 
fully the daily allowance of grain, a matter of much 
more importance in the case of the cow than the 
fattening steer, for the latter is supposed to have 
all the grain that he will consume. Owing to the 
length of the stalks, it is also unhandy to feed such 
material in barn mangers. Could the grain portion 
be regulated and pigs conveniently run behind to 
pick up waste, corn fodder would be practicable for 
cows as well as fattening cattle. Fortunately, the 
difficulties encountered with corn fodder are over- 
come and another desirable factor, known as suc- 
culence, added by feeding the corn crop in the shape 
of silage. 

Corn silage is the whole plant cut into short 
pieces and preserved in an air-tight chamber, called 
the silo, in a more or less green condition. Silage to 
farm animals is as much more palatable than dry cured 
fodder, as canned fruit is more palatable than dried 
fruit to the human family. Silage and canned fruit 
are preserved in much the same way, the only differ- 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT, 6l 

ence being that fruit is usually first heated to drive out 
the air and to kill bacteria, which are always present 
in such material. Green corn is cut in short lengths 
and placed in tall silos, so that it will be pressed down 
by its own weight, the firm packing thus driving out 
all air except the little which unavoidably remains in 
the spaces. Fermentation can therefore go on only so 
long as the oxygen in this air lasts, when the germs 
die, and further shrinkage due to fermentation ceases. 
It has been estimated by King that the loss due to this 
fermentation in good silos amounts to about lo per cent 
of the original material, which is less than the loss 
caused by weathering in the field, an average of several 
tests showing this to be 20 per cent. 

Silage is superior to corn fodder for milk produc- 
tion, as shown in a New Jersey test, where the same 
weight of dry matter in each was compared. Silage 
gave 12.8 per cent more milk and 10.4 per cent more 
butter, than cured corn fodder gave. In this experi- 
ment it was estimated that the cost of placing corn in 
the silo was $11.22 per acre, and that of shocking and 
running the fodder through the feed cutter was $10.31 
per acre. The acre of silage produced 258 pounds 
more milk at an extra cost ot $0.91. Other tests have 
also shown the superiority of silage over dry fodder 
for milk production. Silage is more palatable and 
more easily masticated than dry fodder and is con- 
sumed with little or no waste. It has a characteristic 
flavor which is very much to the liking of cows. 

Economy of Storage' — The silo is furthermore ad- 
vantageous, in that by its use we are able to store 
food in a more compact form, thus ec'onomizing 
space. A little more than twice as much dry matter 
can be stored in a silo as would be found in the same 
volume of hay in the mow. Were we to attempt to 
store cured stalks in the barn, there would be re- 
quired fully five times as much space as for the 



62 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

same weight of dry matter in the form of silage. 

Gathering Corn for Silo Uninterrupted by Rain. — 
In harvesting farm crops which are cured in the usual 
way, the farmer is entirely dependent upon weather 
conditions. Not only do rain-storms cause operations 
to cease for the time being, but much time is often lost 
handling the crop a second time. In filling the silo, 
whether with corn or any of the hay plants, the work 
may proceed during light .showers or immediately fol- 
lowing a heavy shower, so long as the ground is not 
too soft for hauling through the field. 

Wheat May Follow Corn. — Putting corn in the 
silo makes it possible to sow wheat in the same field 
early in the season, if desired, with no inconven- 
ience caused by rows of shocks. It obviates hauling 
in winter when the weather is bad, and is especially 
convenient, because it can be stored near where it is to 
be fed. 

The silo has now become such an important ad- 
junct to farms where more or less attention is given 
to milk production, it seems wise to describe some 
of the essentials of silo construction and methods of 
filling. Bulletins loi and 102 of the Illinois Station 
are so timely on this subject, the writer has Prof. 
Fraser's permission to quote them freely. 

"There are several points that must be closely ob- 
served in making silage if it is to be well- preserved, 
and the neglect of any One of these will make, in the 
final result, the difference between success and failure. 
These essentials are close packing, when the crop is at 
the proper stage of maturity, in an air-tight structure 
having perfectly rigid walls. Of equal if not greater 
importance, is the proper construction of the silo. If 
the sides of the silo are not air-tight, the air which 
passes through will cause the silage to spoil, and if the 
walls are not perfectly rigid, the pressure of the silage 
will cause them to spring out, allowing the air to 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 63 

enter between the silage and the wall. In either case 
the result will be the same — decayed silage. 

"The outward pressure on the wall of a silo filled 
with cut corn is about 11 pounds for every foot in 
depth ; making a pressure of 1 10 pounds at a depth 
of 10 feet ; 330 pounds at a depth of 30 feet ; and the 
enormous pressure of 440 pounds per square foot at a 
depth of forty feet. This increase in pressure as the 
depth increases must be considered in silo construction 
and the lower portion made much the stronger. 

"Before building a silo the most careful attention 
should be given to location, size, form, and method of 
construction. These will differ somewhat according 
to locality and individual needs. A brief discussion of 
these questions follows : 

"Location. — As silage contains about 80 per cent 
water it is a heavy feed to handle and, to avoid unnec- 
essary labor in feeding, the silo should be placed as 
near the manger as possible, preferably at one end 
of the feeding alley. If the silo is inside the barn the 
silage chute should be provided with a door which 
should be kept closed to prevent the silage odors from 
entering the barn at milking time, thus avoiding the 
possibility of their being absorbed by the milk. 

"Where there is a smooth, level floor from the silo 
through the feeding alley, a cart will prove a great con- 
venience in feeding. When built outside the bam the 
silo should be within a few feet of it and connected by 
a covered passage. If it is necessary to fill the hay- 
loft from the end of the barn at which the silo is 
located, a movable track for the silage car can be ar- 
ranged to extend from the silo to the barn. 

"Form of Silo. — Nearly every one who builds a 
silo adds some new feature, giving rise to a great va- 
riety of shapes, and methods of construction. Before 
building a silo it is well to consider both the advantages 
and disadvantages of the different styles as well as the 



64 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

cost of each. It should be borne in mind, however, 
that no silo is cheap, no matter how small the first 
cost, if it does not preserve the silage perfectly. The 
first silos in this country were usually built inside the 
barn and consequently the square form was commonly 
used in order to utilize the space more completely. The 
square silo has not proved satisfactory, however, as it is 
practically impossible to build this form so that the 
side walls will not spring" out and allow the air to pass 
down between the silage and the wall, which invariably 
results in the rotting of the silage. Another difficulty 
with the scjuare form is that the silage does not settle 
readily in the corners and there is consequently con- 
siderable loss from this cause. 

"Proportion and Capacity of Silos.— To obtain sat- 
isfactory results, silage must be in perfect condition 
when fed. Since fermentation soon takes place when 
silage is exposed to the air, the silo should not be of too 
great diameter. Not more than eight square feet of 
surface should be allowed for each cow in winter, then, 
when feeding 40 pounds of silage per cow, a layer about 
I y2 inches deep would be fed off daily. When silage is 
fed in summer it is advisable that the exposed area 
be not over half this size so that a layer three inches 
deep may be used daily. However much stock is to be 
fed, a silo 20 to 22 feet in diameter is as large as 
should be built. If a silo is of greater diameter than 
this, much of the silage is at too great distance from 
the door, increasing the labor of removal. 

"The deeper the silo the greater the pressure and 
more compactly will the silage be pressed together, 
hence the larger the amount that can be stored per 
cubic foot. For example, a silo 20 feet in diameter and 
40 feet deep will hold twice as much as one of the 
same diameter and 25 feet deep. This shows the 
economy of reasonably deep silos. . To be well propor- 
tioned the height should not be more than twice the 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 65 

diameter. No silo should be less than 30 feet deep 
and to get sufficient depth for a silo not over 12 feet 
in diameter, it may be placed 4 or 5 feet into the 
ground. 

"The number of tons of silage needed can readily 
be estimated from the size of the herd and the amount 
to be fed daily. Even where it is desired to feed as 
much silage as possible not more than 40 pounds per 
cow should be fed daily. I^ach cow should have an 
allowance then of 200 times 40 pounds whi^h is 8.000 
pounds of silage, or four tons per cow for the year. 
A herd of ten cows will require a silo holding 40 tons ; 
a herd of 30 cows, 120 tons; 50 cows, 200 tons; and 
100 cows, 400 tons. Where young stock is raised an 
allowance should be made for them. From the amount 
of silage needed the dimensions of a silo of the required 
capacity may be determined from the following 
table showing the capacity in tons of silos of differ- 
ent diameters and depths. These estimates apply to 
silos filled with well matured corn that has been 
allowed to settle forty-eight hours and then refilled. 
It is evident that to get this rated capacity a silo 
which had been filled rapidly must be refilled after 
settling forty-eight hours." 



66 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



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WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. (fj 

A good crop of corn will yield about fifteen tons 
of silage per acre, from which estimate any one can 
determine about how many acres of corn will be re- 
quired to fill a silo of any of the dimensions given. 

Cost of Different Forms of Silos. — Silos as con- 
structed vary in price from $i.oo per ton capacity for 
the stave silo to $4.00 per ton for stone silos. Owing 
to their low cost, stave silos are being used extensively, 
though many object to them because the hoops often 
loosen when the silo is empty and heavy winds some- 
times blow them down. If the hoops can be tightened 
each year and the silo anchored to the barn or other 
support, it will give good satisfaction for several 
years. A stave silo made of good material and well 
put up on stone or concrete foundation will cost in 
the neighborhood of $1.50 per ton capacity. It un- 
doubtedly pays to build good ones, and manufactur- 
ers can usually supply them ready to set up at prices 
below what it would cost the farmer to build them. 

Silos are also built of ship lap material curved about 
vertical studding, both inside and outside, wath tarred 
paper between the two inside layers. A wooden silo 
lined with cement is favored by the Illinois Experi- 
ment Station in Bulletin 102, which gives a detailed 
description of silo construction, including those made 
of stone and cement, as well as those made of wood. 

"Corn the Best Single Crop for the Silo. — Corn not 
only produces a large quantity of nutritious feed that 
is easily placed in the silo, but it is of such a nature as 
to pack readily and keep well. The large southern va- 
rieties of ensilage corn, which give enormous yields 
in tons per acre, have been recommended for silage ; but 
such varieties do not produce much grain and the 
total nutrients are usually less than from ordinary field 
corn. The best results are obtained with some variety 
that will give a good yield of grain, and by planting 
somewhat thicker than tor a grain crop. Under aver- 



68 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

age conditions a larger tonnage of feed can usually be 
obtained per acre by combining corn, sorghum and 
cowpeas or soy beans, but even with this combination 
the greater part of the crop should be corn. When 
either peas or beans are grown with the corn and the 
entire crop is put into the silo, the feeding value is 
greater, ton for ton, than that of corn alone. This is 
a much more economical method of obtaining protein 
than by purchasing it in high priced concentrates, as 
gluten meal, oil meal, etc. 

"If cowpeas are planted at the same time as the 
corn and in the row^s with it, they will usually make 
a fair growth. Since the vines will run up the corn 
stalks, the entire crop can be cut with the binder 
the same as corn alone, making practically no extra 
work in hlling the silo. The only difficulty in 
harvesting corn and cowpeas with the corn binder 
is that, if the corn is missing for a rod in the 
row, there is nothing to carry the peas back into the 
binder, and it is likely to clog. Where there is a fairly 
uniform stand of corn, all can be readily bound to- 
gether. As the stalks of soy beans are much stiffer 
than those of cowpeas, no difficulty is experienced in 
cutting them with the corn." 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 6() 




Stave Silo. 



Round Silo Built of Shiplap. 




Corn and Cowpeas Growing Together at the Illinois Experiment 
Station, for Use as Silage. 



70 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



"Increase of Nutrients During Maturity. — It is of 
great importance to know at what stage corn should be 
cut to secure the best results, how rapidly nutriment is 
stored up in the corn plant as it approaches maturity, 
and when the maximum amount is reached. The fol- 
lowing table illustrates this point: 

Water and Dry Matter in Corn Crop at Different Periods 
After Tasseling. New York (Geneva) Station. 



Date of 

cutting. 



July 

Aug. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Sept. 



30 

9 

-21 

7 
23 



Stage of growth. 



Fully tasseled 

Fully silked 

Kernels watery to full milk. 

Kernels glazing 

Ripe 



o 5 
rows 
9.0 
12.9 
16.3 
16.1 
14.2 



^ 



Tons 
8.2 

11.8 
14.0 
12.5 
10.2 






Tons 
.8 
1.6 
2.3 
3.6 
4.0 



"In the last column is shown the dry matter per 
acre in corn at different stages. When the corn is 
fully tasseled it contains but eight-tenths t)f a ton of 
dry matter per acre, or only one-fifth what it contains 
when fully ripe. When in the milk it contains nearly 
three times as much dry matter as when fully tasseled. 
Only seventeen days were occupied in passing from 
the milk to the glazing stage, yet in this time there was 
an increase in the dry matter of 1.3 tons per acre. This 
shows the great advantage of letting the corn stand 
until the kernels are glazed. After this period the 
increase in dry matter is but slight. 

"Time to Harvest. — To have the silage keep well 
the corn must be cut at the proper stage of maturity. 
If cut before it is sufficiently matured, too much acid 
develops. If too ripe it does not settle properly and 
the air is not sufficiently excluded to prevent spoiling. 

"Corn should not be cut until the ears are out of the 
milk and most of the kernels glazed and hard. Ear 
No. I is in the soft dough stage ; No. 2 is beginning to 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 



71 




y2 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

dent ; No. 3 is nearly all dented, but a few kernels are 
still in the milk ; No. 4 shows all the kernels dented. 
When corn is put into the silo it should usually be as 
ripe as ears Nos. 3 and 4. In case the weather has been 
so hot and dry that the lower leaves have fired, the 
corn should be cut before the ears are quite so far ad- 
vanced. Much riper corn will keep at the bottom of 
the silo than at the top because of the greater pressure 
which excludes the air more completely. It is, there- 
fore, impbrtant that the ripest corn be cut first and 
placed in the bottom of the silo. 

"Method of Harvesting. — The corn should be cut 
with a corn binder, as it is much more easily handled 
when bound in bundles. If the silage cutter is large and 
the work is pushed with a good force of men, the corn 
binder should have a start of half a day. If enough 
horses are used on the binder to keep it moving at a 
good pace the corn can usually be cut down as fast 
as it can be put into the silo. 

"It is always wise to have a silage cutter of large 
capacity, as much less labor is required in feeding it, 
and if the bundles are small the bands need not be cut. 
Using a small cutter with a large engine is danger- 
ous unless great care is exercised in controlling the 
power. The customary, and usually the most satisfac- 
tory, way of elevating the cut material is by means of 
the blower. To obtain the best results and not to be 
annoyed by clogging, the blower pipe should be run 
as nearly perpendicular as possible. 

"Essentials of Silo Filling. — If silage is to keep 
well it must settle evenly. To this end the leaves and 
the heavier parts of the corn must be kept thoroughly 
mixed and evenly distributed in the silo. Owing to 
the great lateral pressure of silage, friction with the 
sides of the silo has a tendency to make the silage 
less compact at the edge, and for this reason it 
should be kept thoroughly tramped next the side. 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 73 

Every time three or four inches of cut material is 
added to the silo it should be tramped thoroughly 
around the edge, taking short steps and packing the 
silage as much as possible next the wall. These pre- 
cautions must be observed during filling to obtain 
perfect silage. 

'Tf the corn is so ripe that none having green 
leaves at the bottom of the stalk can be obtained to 
finish the last four or five feet at the top of the silo, 
water should be run into the carrier and the corn 
well soaked. If the corn is green, only enough water 
need be used to soak the upper six inches of silage. 

"Many different forms of covering for silage have 
been advocated, but it is usually found most practical to 
finish with the same material as that with which the 
silo is filled. Frequently a saving can be made by 
snapping off the ears and using the stalks alone, or 
by running enough straw, chaff, or weeds through the 
cutter to cover the silage from four to six inches deep. 
If pressure is available, water can be run into the car- 
rier to saturate this material. The top must be thor- 
oughly soaked once and the whole surface well tramped 
every day for a week to exclude the air as much as 
possible. This tramping should be especially well done 
around the sides, so that the air cannot gain access 
next the wall. The object of wetting the surface is to 
obtain as quickly as possible a thin layer of thoroughly 
rotted silage, which will seal the top, thus excluding the 
air and preserving the silage below. 

"If water is not added to the top, the heat dries out 
the silage, which may then "fire fang" to considerable 
depth, entailing a great loss." 

Cost of Filling a Silo. — At the Illinois Experiment 
Station, record was ma.de of the cost of filling nine- 
teen silos in the state. Labor, twine, wear and tear on 
machinery, etc., were all estimated at full value. "The 
cost as determined ranged from forty cents to seventy- 



74 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



six cents per ton, the average being fifty-six cents. 
This variation was caused by the distance the corn 
was hauled and the ability of some farmers to ar- 
range the work more systematically and push it with 
greater energy than others." By including the annual 
interest on money invested in the silo and the rental 
upon the land, any farmer can calculate the cost of 
producing silage, which will range from $1.25 to $2.00 
per ton, according to location. 

Silage Fed Liberally vs. Grain Fed Liberally 
Without Silage. — The Ohio Experiment Station has 
recently secured data to show the relative economy 
of a ration consisting of more silage than dairymen 
customarily feed and a ration consisting largely of 
grain with corn stover and mixed hay for roughage. 
The silage used consisted of a mixture of the 
forage plants, soy beans, cowpeas and corn, in the 
proportion respectively i :2 :75<2 by weight. The 
experiment was carried on for a period of six months 
with five cows in each of two lots. The average 
ration actually consumed by each cow by lot is 
shown in the following table, in which the data are 
stated in terms of crude nutrients rather than di- 
gestible : 





I.- 


—SILAGE 


RATION. 








Lbs. 


Feed. 


>> 2 

s 


a 
"S 


u 


'^ 


£ g 







Lbs. 

10.83 
5.77 
1.80 
1.76 

20.16 


Lbs. 
1.369 
0.550 
0.664 
0.308 
2.891 


Lbs. 
2.71 
1.90 
0.19 
0.18 
4.98 


Lbs. 

5.43 

2.761 

0.768 

1.078 


Lbs. 


58. 
6.8 
2. 
2. 


Silage 

Mixed hay .... 

Oil meal 

Bran 


.531 
.211 
.06 

.08 




Total 






10.037 


.882 



4.7 

6.4 

2.5 

5. 

6. 



Stover . . . . 
Mixed hay 
Oil meal . . 
Corn meal 

Bran 

Total .. 



I. — GKAIN 


RATION. 




3.29 


0.211 


1.15 1.70 


5.43 


0.518 


1.79 2.60 


1 2.25 


0.83 


0.237 0.96 


4.25 


0.46 


0.095 3.435 


5.29 


0.924 


0.54 3.234 


1 20.51 


2.943 


3.812 11.929 



.063 
.198 
.075 
.19 
.24 
T766 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 75 

It will thus be seen that the cows in each lot con- 
sumed practically the same amount of dry matter and 
crude protein, but in the silage ration over 82 per cent 
-of the dry matter was derived from roughage, while in 
the "grain" ration less than 43 per cent was derived 
from roughage. 

Each hundred pounds of dry matter produced as 
follows : 

Ration. Lbs. milk. Lbs. fat. 

Silage 96.7 5.08 

Grain 81.3 3.90 

In computing the cost of the silage the experimenter 
says : "The value placed upon a ton of silage is based 
upon that of the corn and stover grown upon similar 
ground and marketed as such. For instance, upon 
ground on which we average fifty bushels of shelled 
corn per acre we grow fifteen tons or better of silage 
corn. The fifteen tons of silage corn therefore may be 
said to be worth the market value of the fifty bushels 
of corn, plus the one and one-fourth ton of stover 
which will go with it. ( We find the expense of putting 
an acre of corn into the silo to be practically the same 
as shocking, husking and cribbing the grain and haul- 
ing off the stover.) We have here charged 51 cents 
per bushel for corn on the average for the period cov- 
ered by the test and $4.00 per ton for stover. This will 
make the acre of silage corn worth $30.50, or $2.03 per 
ton." 

Other foods were valued at current market prices. 
The schedule of prices on each feed and product was : 

Silage, per ewt $ 0.10 

Hay, per cwt 50 

Stover, per cwt 20 

Wheat bran, per ewt 93.7 

Corn meal, per ewt 1.00 

Oil meal, per ewt I.I614. 

Butter, per pound 25% 

Skim milk, per cwt 15 



76 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

At these prices, not counting' the cost of labor, each 
hundred pounds of milk from the "silage" ration 
costs $0,687 ^^^ from the "grain" ration, $1,055. 
Each pound of butter on silage costs $0,131 and on 
the "grain" ration, $0,221. 

The experiment shows (i) that, for Ohio condi- 
tions at least, the dairyman cannot afford to make 
too liberal a use of grain, reducing the apportion- 
ment of hay correspondingly ; (2) that silage can 
take the place of a large part of the grain ration 
ordinarily fed, with much greater economy. It does 
not show, however, that such a heavy feed of silage 
is necessarily more economical than a moderate al- 
lowance, perhaps thirty or forty pounds to each cow 
per day. 

A Profitable Western Ration, — In consideration of 
what has been said concerning the economy of the 
use of a considerable quantity of corn, in which is 
mixed a little bran to make the grain ration itself 
more bulky, with alfalfa to furnish most of the pro- 
tein as well as bulk, and corn silage for succulent 
material, we have in the following a wonderfully effi- 
cient ration, as w^ell as one low in cost : 

Dry Carbo- Nutritive 

matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Corn meal, 6 lbs 5.34 .47 4.00 .25 

Wheat bran, 2 lbs 1.76 .24 .78 .05 

Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. . . 9.16 1.10 3.96 .12 

Corn silage, 40 lbs 8.36 .36 4.52 .28 

Total 24.62 2.17 13.26 .70 1:6.9 

Should wheat bran be much higher per ton than 
corn, it would be more profitable to use six pounds 
of corn and cob meal, substituting two pounds more 
of alfalfa for the two pounds of bran. By using 
seven pounds of corn and cob meal and one pound of 
cottonseed or linseed meal, with ten pounds of alfalfa 
and forty pounds of silage, we have another excellent 
combination. 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT 'J'J 

Cowpea hay, as shown by the table in the appen- 
dix, is very similar to alfalfa in composition and 
practically equal to it in feeding value. At the 
Tennessee Station these two forage plants produced 
milk equally well, but the cowpea hay was said to be 
somewhat cheaper. It is a plant which does par- 
ticularly well in Southern States ; in fact, as far 
north as Central Illinois. Its real merit, as a sup- 
plement to corn and as a soil renovator, combined 
with the fact that it is comparatively new to most 
farmers, makes it seem desirable to describe briefly 
its culture, which description may be found in the 
appendix. This hay plant should be fed in the 
same manner as alfalfa, but wherever the latter can 
be grown well, there would seem to be no 
particular advantage in growing cowpeas for hay. 
extensively at least. Cowpea fodder also makes 
good silage. The Maryland Station found it su- 
perior to corn silage. 

Soy bean hay frequently yields as high as three 
tons per acre in the South, where it is receiving 
favorable mention as a fodder plant. It is somewhat 
coarse in stem, though palatable and a rich source 
of protein. Its composition is similar to alfalfa 
and cowpea hay, making its use in the ration the 
same. It has been tested as a silage plant and is 
highly recommended. The New Jersey Station 
found alfalfa hay and soy bean silage as efficient 
as commercial foods for supplying protein, which 
seems entirely reasonable in view of its composi- 
tion. 

Red clover, belonging to the same family as 
alfalfa, is also rich in protein and therefore a good 
fodder to supplement corn. To be most useful it 
should be cut when the blossoms begin to turn 
brown, preferably in late afternoon or early morn- 
ing so that it will receive the sun's rays the whole 



78 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

day. It should be raked and put up in small cocks 
before the dew falls, which always blackens cured 
clover, and allowed to stand while it undergoes the 
sweating process. This usually requires about two 
days, after which it is ready to go in the mow or 
stack. Clover cured in this way, if it has not been 
rained upon, will come out in the winter green and 
crisp, in which condition it is much more palatable 
and nutritious than hay which has been put in direct 
from the windrow. On small farms, more particu- 
larly in the Eastern States, canvas caps are used to 
advantage for covering haycocks, and no doubt 
more than pay for themselves, at least where hay 
is high in price. 

Clover is a good substitute for alfalfa, though its 
lower protein content makes it necessary to use a 
protein concentrate, such as linseed meal, when corn 
stover is made a part of the roughage. The digest- 
ible nutrients in a ration consisting of corn and 
clover alone are as follows : 

Dry Carbo- Nutritive 

matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Corn, 10 lbs 8.9 .79. 6.67 .43 

Red clover, 20 lbs. . . 16.94 1.36 7.16 .34 

Total 25.85 2.15 13.83 .77 1:7.2 

Woll 's suggested stand- 
ard 25.6 2.2 13.3 .8 1 :6.9 

It is apparent that this combination meets re- 
(luirements sufficiently close. 

Were we to utilize the stover which grew with 
tlie corn fed, our ration to be well balanced .would 
be as follows : 

Dry Carbo- Nutritive 

matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Corn, 9 lbs 7.9 .71 6.0 .39 

Linseed meal, 1% lbs. . . 1.3 .44 .48 .10 

Corn stover, 9 lbs 5.3 .15 2.91 .06 

Clover, 13 lbs 11.0 .88 4.65 .22 

Total 25.5 2.18 14.04 .77 1:7.2 



WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 79 

With a silo the clover ration may be made still 
more efificient in a manner something like this: 

Dry Carbo- Nutritive 

matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Corn and cob meal, 7 lbs. 6.23 .55 4.67 .30 
Cottonseed meal, 

li/o lbs 1.37 .55 .25 .18 

Clover, 10 lbs 8.47 .68 3.58 .17 

Corn silage, 40 lbs 8.36 .36 4.52 .28 

Total 24.43 2.14 13.02 .93 1:7 

For such animals as dairy cows, which are 
equipped for utilizing a large quantity of roughage, 
it is much more profitable to grow oae or more 
of these four legumes than to purchase extensively 
commercial protein foods. Nor should the effect 
of such crops upon the soil be overlooked. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

FEEDING WITHOUT THE LEGUMES FOR 
ROUGHAGE. 

With none of the legumes (clover, alfalfa, cow- 
peas and soy beansj for use as hay, but with 
an abundance of other roughage on hand, all forms 
of which are non-nitrogenous in character, the pur- 
chase of one or more of the so-called commercial 
protein foods is made necessary. These foods, most 
of them by-products, have never reached a price 
when a limited quantity could not be used with 
profit, though certain ones are often more econom- 
ically used than others, depending upon relative 
prices at the time and place v/anted. 

These protein foods for cattle feeding may be 
conveniently divided into three classes, the group 
to which each belongs depending upon protein con- 
tent : Class I contains those richest in protein, and 
includes cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten meal 
and soy bean meal ; Class 2, gluten feed, dried 
brew^er's grains, malt sprouts, Canadian field peas 
and cowpeas ; Class 3,' wheat bran and shorts, or 
middlings. 

Class I. Cottonseed meal, a Southern product, 
is the richest protein food on the market for use 
as a cattle food, 100 pounds containing 37 pounds 
of digestible protein. It is a by-product from the 
manufacture of oil from cotton seed. After the 
seeds have been freed from fiber, they are passed 
through a machine which removes the hulls. The 
decorticated seeds are then cooked and while still 
hot subjected to hydraulic pressure which removes 
thQ oil. The hard, board-like cake remaining is 

80 



FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 8l 

afterwards broken, finely ground and sold as cot- 
tonseed meal. One ton of seed will yield about 800 
pounds of cottonseed meal, which should be of a 
light yellow color, with a clean, nutty odor. If it is 
dark in color it is of inferior quality, either be- 
cause of the presence of finely ground hulls, or be- 
cause of fermentations. The Vermont Experiment 
Station suggests the following test by which any 
one can quickly and surely tell whether it is good 
or inferior: "Place a teaspoonful of the meal (do 
not use more) in a tumbler and pour over it from 
an ounce and a half to two ounces of hot water. 
Stir the mass till it is thoroughly wet up and all 
the particles are floating. Allow it to subside for 
from five to ten seconds and pour oflf. If a large 
amount of fine, dark brown sediment has settled 
in this time, a sediment noticeably heavier than 
the fine, mustard-yellow meal, one which upon re- 
peated treatments with boiling hot water keeps 
settling out. the goods are a feed meal — /. e., meal 
containing relatively large quantities of ground 
hulls. All meals contain small quantities of hulls 
and show dark specks. If, however, there is found 
a large amount of this residue, one which persists 
in remaining behind after several washings and 
decantings, it is surely composed of hulls and the 
goods are a feed meal. The results of this test are 
■ very striking when a feed meal is compared with a 
meal of known purity which is similarly tested at 
the same time." Some feeders have experienced 
difficulty in securing a pure meal, on account of 
which this simple test is of great practical value. 
A good quality of the meal produces excellent re- 
sults when fed as suggested in the pages follow- 
ing. 

Linseed meal, also called oil meal and ground 
oil cake, is similar to cottonseed meal in feeding 



82 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

value, being if anything more palatable but a little 
less rich in protein. Linseed meal is of two kinds, 
old process and new process. Old process linseed 
meal is the residue left after extracting linseed oil 
from flaxseed by means of hydraulic pressure. New 
process is made by extracting the oil by the use of 
a chemical solvent, like benzine. The new method 
extracts the oil more perfectly, on account of which 
the old process meal contains more oil but a little 
less total protein. In the new process, however, the 
ground flaxseed is first cooked, so that, although the 
meal contains more total protein, the cooking has 
rendered it less digestible, giving the old process 
meal a higher percentage of digestible protein. This 
more valuable "old process" can be told from the 
new by placing a teaspoonful of each in separate 
glasses, pouring a small quantity of hot water on 
both -samples. The new process, having once jel- 
lied through cooking, remains unchanged, while 
the old process forms a sticky jelly-like mass. Lin- 
seed meal, like cottonseed meal, is first pressed 
into cakes, after which it is ground, either to the 
condition of a fine meal or a granular substance 
in which the particles are about the size of peas 
or kernels of corn. The cake in its original form is 
exported, because it is known to*be unadulterated 
in that form. The granular, or pea-size, is prefer- 
able to the fine meal for the same reason. It 
is, furthermore, more satisfactory for outdoor feed- 
ing, because it is less blown by the wind. Linseed 
meal is well relished and serves as an appetizer 
and a mild laxative, as well as a concentrated source 
of protein. 

Gluten meal is a residue from the manufacture of 
starch and glucose from corn. The process con- 
sists in first separating the germ and hull from the 
starch and gluten, after which the gluten is sepa- 



FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 83 

rated from the starch by the action of water. The 
dried meal is rich in protein and has a value fully 
as great as linseed meal. 

Soy bean meal differs from the products described 
in that it is the entire seed of the soy bean plant 
ground. It is worthy of note that soy beans are 
the only farm seeds deserving of a place in Class 
I, on account of their exceptionally high protein con- 
tent. They are also rich in oil. which makes it 
the more necessary to use a limited quantity. The 
soy bean is a very promising crop in the more 
Southern States, yielding from ten to twenty bush- 
els of seed per acre, worth as much per pound as 
linseed meal for feeding purposes. (See Soy-bean 
culture in the appendix.) 

Malt Sprouts. — In the process of the manufac- 
ture of beer from the barley grain, the starch is 
transformed into sugar by sprouting the seed, the 
sugar thus formed being dissolved out by water 
after the seeds are ground, fermenting later to form 
alcohol. At a certain stage in germination the 
seeds are drfed and the sprouts are broken off and 
separated from the grain, after which they are 
sacked and placed on the market for feeding pur- 
poses. Malt sprouts, relatively higher in protein 
than are other foods of Class II, are fed to dairy 
cows with profit in localities where beer making 
is an important industry. 

Dried brewers' grains constitute that portion of 
the barley grain which is left after the starch is 
converted into sugar and removed from the seed. 
Brewers' grains are sometimes sold to the local 
trade in the wet form, which .is valuable only for 
immediate use, as the material does not keep. Dried 
brewers' grains are very commonly fed to dairy 
cows in Eastern States. 

Class II. Cowpeas are less rich in protein than 



84 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

are soy beans, which logically puts them in Class 
II of the protein foods. The cowpea plant, cut be- 
fore the seeds ripen, is so valuable for hay that it is 
used largely for this purpose. Where the seeds are 
allowed to ripen and are threshed, they may be 
ground into a meal and used very advantageously 
as a protein supplement to corn. 

Canadian peas are nearly as rich in protein, and 
are sometimes grown in the North for feeding as 
a grain, as well as for use as a forage. For all 
classes of stock, with the possible exception of 
sheep, they should be ground before being fed. 

Gluten feed is another by-product from the manu- 
facture of starch and glucose from corn. It differs 
from gluten meal in that it contains the hull and 
germ as well as gluten, giving it a lower percent- 
age of protein and a higher percentage of crude 
fiber. 

Class III. The annual yield of wheat in the 
United States has averaged during the years 1900- 
1905 about 650,000,000 bushels, of which nearly 
500,000,000 are annually ground for flour within 
our borders. When it is understood that not less 
than one-fourth of this wheat is milled out as offal, 
producing from 3,500,000 to 4,000,000 tons of bran 
and shorts each year, the extensive use of such ma- 
terial for feeding purposes can be more easily com- 
prehended. The wheat grain consists of a mass of 
starch cells mingled with gluten, a germ near the 
base within, and a layer of gluten cells around the 
outside, the whole being surrounded by a tough, 
woody coating made up of three distinct layers. 
Bessey is authority for the statement that "The 
coatings constitute 5 per cent of the seed, the gluten 
layer 3 to 4 per cent, the germ 6 per cent, and the 
starch cells 84 to 86 per cent." 

Wheat bran is the coarse outer part, or skin, of the 



FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 85 

kernel, to which chng- more or less gluten material 
and starch cells, when the product is removed in 
milling. A large part of the mineral matter of the 
wheat kernel is at the outside of the kernel, an;', 
consequently appears in the bran. This, with the 
gluten, makes the product a good bone making 
food. The large percentage of crude fiber gives 
bulk, making bran desirable to feed in con- 
nection with concentrated material like corn-meal, 
to which it also adds protein and mineral matter — 
in both of which corn is deficient. Bran is also 
something of an aid to digestion, inasmuch as it 
contains more or less of a ferment, called "diastase," 
wnich is found about the germ, and which promotes 
the change from starch to sugar, in digestion as well 
as in seed germination. Bran, like linseed meal, is 
d mild laxative, which makes it useful immediately 
following parturition, when the dam is feverish and 
usually constipated. Its use for such purposes 
makes bran more valuable than its composition 
would indicate. 

Wheat shorts, or middlings, consist largely of 
the row of gluten cells, that part of the kernel be- 
tween the starch cells and outer coatings. It con- 
tains more starchy matter and less crude fiber than 
bran, making it more concentrated, though no 
richer in protein and even less rich in mineral mat- 
ter. Shorts are more suitable for animals of lim- 
ited digestive capacity, as swine, but less valuable 
for diluting corn-meal for cattle. Wheat middlings 
is the name formerly applied to what is now sold as 
shorts, though in Eastern States the name middlings 
is still in common usage. When flour was made by 
the old burrstone process there were but three 
parts : flour, middlings and bran. With improved 
methods a large number of grades, from the finest 
patent flour down to bran, are made. At the pres- 



86 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

ent time millers apply the term middlings to that 
part of the kernel from which both the finest flours 
and coarser bran have been removed — material fur- 
ther used for the manufacture of the coarser grades 
of flour, with which, therefore, the feeder is not 
concerned. 

The relative value of the three classes of protein 
foods is most conveniently stated in terms of protein 
content. Those in Class I contain from 28 to 35 
per cent digestible protein ; those in Class II, from 
17 to 20 per cent, and those in Class III, from 12 to 
13 per cent. The relation of the three classes in 
terms of protein may be given as 30, 18, 12. Accord- 
ingly, there would be required a percentage of the 
wheat by-product in the ration one and a half times 
the percentage of foods in Class II and two and a 
half times the percentage of those constituting Class 
I. In other words, if oil meal, for example, is used 
as 10 per cent of the ration, one of those in Class II 
should constitute 17 per cent, and bran or shorts 
25 per cent. The proportion 30, 18, 12 should also 
be a fairly good estimate of relative values. Were 
any further distinction to be made, it would be to 
give cottonseed meal a valuation more nearly to 
correspond with its higher protein content, about 
36, though it will average in quality lower than 
that figure represents. 

Rations Without the Legume Hay Plants. — With 
only cornstalks for roughage, a ration to be well 
balanced should be something as follows: 

Dry Carbo- Nutritive 

matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Corn, 9 lbs 8.02 .71 6.00 .39 

Cottonseed meal 3 lbs. 2.7.5 1.12 .50 .36 

Com stover. 23 lbs. .. 13.68 .39 7.45 .16 



Total 24.45 2.22 13.95 .91 1:7.2 

If the corn is cut just as soon as the ears are 



FEEDING WITH*OUT LEGUMES 87 

ripe and the stalks are well cured in the shock, such 
a ration will give good results at a low cost. 

Sorghum (sugar-cane) is often grown for fod- 
der, particularly in regions where rains are less 
abundant and corn is less likely to succeed. Sor- 
ghum yiel'ds well, and if the seed is drilled rather 
thickly the stems grow small, making the forage 
better relished and more easily masticated. Sor- 
ghum hay is so similar to corn stover in composi- 
tion, the difference being due to the presence of 
more sugar and less starch in sorghum, that the 
two should be supplemented in the same way. 

Timothy hay is nearly as deficient in protein as 
are the two fodders just described. Timothy is in 
such demand for horse feeding that its market price 
is much above its real worth for all other classes of 
stock. Should it be the only roughage at the feed- 
er's disposal, it could be fed with cottonseed meal 
as follows : 

Dry Carbo- Nutritive 

matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Corn, 8 lbs 7.13 .63 5.33 .34 

Cottonseedmeal, 3 lbs.. . 2.75 1.12 .50 .36 

Timothy, 18 lbs 15.61 .50 7.81 .25 

Total 24.49 2.25 13.64 .95 1:7 

Prairie hay, which grows so abundantly on the 
Western plains, is similar to timothy in composi- 
tion, though it usually consists of so many varieties 
of grasses that its analysis in one section is inap- 
plicable to another. The Minnesota Station found 
timothy and prairie hay practically equal for pro- 
ducing milk. This should be fed as has been sug- 
gested for timothy. 

Millet hay (Hungarian grass) is not in high favor 
as a forage plant, though it yields well and pro- 
duces a crop quickly. Millet often causes scours, 
especially when cut too green, which makes it some- 



88 PROFITABLE STOCK FfiEDlNC. 

what objectionable. On the other hand, if allowed 
to ripen, the fodder is less valuable and the small, 
hard seeds are irritating to the digestive tract. It 
should be supplemented in the same manner as 
timothy hay, though much better results are se- 
cured by using millet as half the roughage. 

Oat straw is an inexpensive material on most 
farms, where it is often used for bedding purposes. 
By referring to the table it will be seen that oat 
straw has less protein than the foods described, on 
account of which about one-lhird more protein food 
should be used. Any straw contains a large quan- 
tity of crude fiber, mostly indigestible, which ex- 
plains why less of such roughness will be consumed, 
making a larger use of grain necessary. Oat straw 
is another food more successfully utilized in con- 
nection with some other roughage. 

Wheat and rye straw contain still less protein and 
more crude fiber than is found in oat straw. In 
fact, they contain so much inert matter, and so much 
energy is expended in extracting the little nutri- 
ment contained, that the economy of forcing such 
material upon any class of animals, at least in quan- 
tity, is questionable. With no other forms of rough- 
age, they will serve as "fillers," as all ruminants re- 
quire some bulk. Straw is an excellent absorbent 
and extremely useful for bedding, for which pur- 
pose it often yields more revenue than for use as 
a food. 

Variety in the roughage fed is as much appre- 
ciated as variety in the grain ration. When possi- 
ble two or more kinds should be supplied. If hay 
from any one of the legumes, alfalfa, clover, cow- 
peas or soy beans, is fed as half the roughage, it 
would be more profitable to reduce the amount of 
cottonseed meal or other commercial protein foods 



FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 89 

to one-half of that recommended for stover, timothy 
or the other fodder plants of that class. 

Roughage Need Not Be Weighed. — The rations, 
as outlined in the preceding pages, show something 
of how the foods should be put together to furnish 
the nutrients, together with the bulk desirable, for 
a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds. If a cow is 
lighter or heavier, the ration should be varied ac- 
cordingly. It is not the thought of the writer that 
the roughage be weighed, as this would involve too 
much labor. By weighing a measure full of grain 
it is possible to regulate the amount at each feed 
with but little inconvenience. The average cow, if 
fed the weight of grain recommended, will consume 
approximately the amount of hay or other roughage 
stated, providing she has before her all her appetite 
craves — such an allowance as will be cleaned up 
each day with no waste except coarse stems, which 
have little nutritive value and are only serviceable 
for bedding. 

Beet Pulp. — The sugar beet industry has attained 
such proportions in certain sections of the United 
States that the pulp, a residual product from the 
manufacture of sugar from the beet, has come under 
consideration relative to a possible feeding value 
it may possess. Pulp has no commercial value 
aside from its use as a stock food, which makes it 
all the more necessary to give it a careful trial for 
feeding purposes. In the process of sugar manu- 
facture the beets are criished, saturated with water 
and chemically treated. The pulp is simply the 
crushed beet minus the sugar it originally contained, 
plus water. One hundred pounds of pulp has ap- 
proximately ten pounds of dry matter. It is, there- 
fore, extremely watery and quickly fermentable, 
which makes it a product most suitable for feeding 
in close proximity to the sugar factories, rather than 



90 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

to pay heavy freight charges for its transportation ; 
and, furthermore, it should be fed.out quickly rather 
than stored for any length of time, unless the silo is 
used. While beet pulp contains but little dry mat- 
ter, making it low in nutritive value, when fed 
with grain and dry fodder, it has, like corn silage 
and roots, a physiological effect upon the system 
which is beneficial. This makes it somewhat more 
valuable than its composition would indicate — 
especially for milch cows. 

The Cornell (New York) Station found that the 
dry matter of beet pulp is equivalent to the dry 
matter of corn silage, which makes two tons of 
average pulp equal to one ton of corn silage, ap- 
proximately, for feeding purposes. At the Colorado 
Station it was also found that two tons of pulp are 
the equivalent of one ton of the beets. These two 
tests confirm the Nebraska test, which showed 
sugar beets to be practically equivalent to corn 
silage, pound for pound, for dairy cows. 

The Colorado Station advocates fifty pounds as 
a maximum daily feed of pulp. In their tests, 
twenty-four pounds were fed per day in connection 
with twenty pounds of alfalfa, four pounds of corn 
chop and four pounds of wheat chop. Beets were 
fed in the same way in half the quantity. In the 
New York test each cow ate from fifty to one hun- 
dred pounds of pulp per day, according to size, in 
addition to eight pounds of grain and six to twelve 
pounds of hay. 

Dried molasses beet pulp is a new product given 
considerable prominence by sugar companies. The 
Vermont Station found it equivalent to the dry mat- 
ter of corn silage and as efficient as bran, though 
the two are hardly comparable because the dried 
pulp is not a protein food. Its preparation is de~ 
scribed as follows: 



FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES QI 

"The beets are thoroughly washed, then shredded 
and placed in large cylinders. Pure water is ad- 
mitted and the sugar soaked out by the diffusion 
process. This liquor is drawn off and the pulp, 
containing 92 per cent moisture and one-quarter 
per cent sugar, is conveyed at once to the drier, 
where it is first run through presses reducing the 
moisture to 82 per cent. Residuum molasses from 
the sugar factory containing 50 per cent sugar is 
next mixed with the pressed pulp. This mixture is 
then put into the kilns, where it is thoroughly dried 
by direct heat. The drying process lasts 35 min- 
utes. Immediately upon coming from the kilns the 
pulp is sacked and is ready for shipment. The dry- 
ing follows the use of the water so quickly that 
there is no opportunity for fermentation. One hour 
from the time the sugar is extracted from the beets 
the dried molasses beet pulp is in sacks ready for 
use. 

"Dried beet pulp, whether molasses is added to it 
or not, is hardly in the same class as other concen- 
trates. Its origin and method of manufacture are 
so unlike them that we may expect to find its 
chemical composition and adaptations unusual. 
Such is found to be the case. Its protein content 
is lower than that of any ordinary concentrate ex- 
cept corn-meal; its nitrogen-free extract and ether 
extract contents are low and their composition rela- 
tively poor and lacking in true starch and fat ; and 
its crude fiber percentage is high. It cannot serve 
to narrow a ration, since its nutritive ratio is wide. 
Theoretically it would seem better adapted to fat- 
tening than to milk making ; but as a matter of fact 
it was found satisfactory in these trials." 

Beet leaves are produced in abundance on land 
devoted to the culture of sugar beets. In actual 
value leaves are better than straw, but less valuable 



92 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

than hay. The presence of oxalic acid makes it ad- 
visable to feed beet leaves moderately. 

Roots are very commonly used in European coun- 
tries for all classes of stock. In the United States 
their growth is more largely confined to small farms 
in Eastern States, where land is comparatively high 
in price. A large tonnage of roots can be grown on 
a limited area, though in actual pounds of dry mat- 
ter produced they are not ahead of some of our 
forage crops. It is their watery, succulent character 
which makes roots especially adapted for milk pro- 
duction. In the corn belt, however, silage can be 
produced at half the cost, and, as shown by experi- 
ments, the silage is equal to roots, pound for pound, 
making root growing less practical. Of the dif- 
ferent kinds of roots, mangel wurzels are most in 
favor, because they yield heavily and are at the 
same time well relished. 

Cabbages are also grown for cows, and they are 
relished extremely well, even more so than roots. 
By proper methods of culture they can also be made 
to yield well, often requiring less labor than is re- 
quired for root growing. Without the silo for corn, 
at least some roots or cabbages should be grown 
for the dairy herd. 

Corn Substitutes. — On many farms cereals other 
than corn are often grown for feeding purposes, 
either because they fit well in the crop rotation, or 
because the farmer feels it something of a risk to 
depend entirely upon corn for fattening purposes. 
In the Northern States especially, the dangers from 
killing frosts in the fall would seem to warrant the 
growth of at least a small acreage of barley or some 
other corn substitute. In the semiarid regions cer- 
tain other crops yield better and are more to be 
relied upon than corn. In feeding any of these so- 
called substitutes, either alone or mixed, protein 



FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 93 

foods should be used to supplement them, as has 
been recommended for corn, with exceptions as 
stated below. 

Barley is an excellent substitute for corn where 
the latter cannot be successfully grown because of 
unfavorable climatic conditions. Barley contains a 
little more protein than does corn, but, on the other 
hand, it has more crude fiber and is somewhat less 
palatable. In tests that have been made the two 
were found to be practically equal in value, and one 
may be used as a substitute for the other. It is 
more necessary to grind barley, because of its 
smaller size and hardness. 

Emmer (speltz) is similar to barley in composi- 
tion, though it contains more fiber. At the South 
Dakota Station barley proved to be 13 per cent 
more valuable than speltz for milk production. 
Farmers in the semiarid sections can grow speltz 
more successfully than barley, much more so than 
corn, and where they have fed it to dairy cows good 
results have been secured. Owing to its bulk, it 
would seem better adapted for cows than any other 
class of animals. 

Wheat is occasionally so low in price as to make 
its use for stock feeding practicable. It should be 
ground and mixed with bran or some other food 
to make it less sticky, under which circumstances 
it is equal to corn. Wheat is somewhat richer in 
protein than corn, requiring, therefore, a little less 
of this nutrient from other sources. 

Rye should also be ground and fed as suggested 
for wheat, though it seems to_ be from 5 to 10 per 
cent less valuable, which must be due to its unpalat- 
ability, as the two grains are similar in composi- 
tion. 

Kafir corn and sorghum seed are semiarid 
products, and both are very commonly fed to stock. 



94 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

The seeds are so small and hard that grinding is 
also necessary with them, more necessary, in fact, 
than with wheat or barley. Neither Kafir corn nor 
cane seed is so well relished as corn by dairy cows, 
which, no doubt, partly accounts for a slightly 
lower feeding value. 

Oats are well relished and contain more protein 
than the other foods described. They are excellent 
regulators, because of their bulk and the fact that 
they are easily digested. Whenever the market 
price of oats is no higher than corn per hundred 
weight, they should be fed. Even at a slightly 
higher price, they can be used economically in a 
limited way to furnish variety, and with corn-meal 
they add bulk, which is advantageous. 

Condimental Stock Foods. — During recent years 
numerous establishments for the manufacture of so- 
called stock foods have sprung up in various 
parts of the country. The enterprise and aggres- 
siveness displayed by these concerns in advertis- 
ing their goods have been such as to arouse con- 
siderable interest among farmers as to the validity 
of the claims made for such products. The claims 
made are : first, that they are appetizers, promot- 
ing digestion ; and, secondly, that they have medici- 
nal properties beneficial in efifect. Several experi- 
ment stations have been investigating these claims, 
among them Massachusetts, which reports as fol- 
lows concerning the ingredients used: "The sub- 
stances generally employed as a basis for the stock 
foods were the cereals — corn and wheat offal es- 
pecially — linseed meal, beans and rice. The poul- 
try foods were composed of similar substances, to- 
gether with oyster shells and meat and bone meal. 
xA.mong the remaining ingredients, added ostensibly 
for medicinal efifect, are numbered many of the old- 
time remedies, such as common salt, charcoal, black 



FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 95 

pepper, cayenne, fenugreek, sulfur, Glauber and Ep- 
som salts, and occasionally fennel, ginger, tumeric 
and sulfate of iron. Fenugreek was a favorite in 
the stock mixtures and pepper in the poultry foods. 
Venetian red (oxide of iron) was often used simply 
to color and disguise the character of the other 
constituents. Finely ground charcoal acted in a 
similar manner. In several instances noticeable 
quantities of sand were found, but whether to in- 
crease the weight or as an accidental admixture is 
difficult to say." 

Dr. James B. Paige in Bulletin 71 of the Massa- 
chusetts Station says : "Contrary to the popular 
belief, animals in a state of health, under favorable 
conditions as regards food and stabling, do not 
need condition' powders or tonic foods. There is 
in the body of such an animal a condition of equi- 
librium of all body functions. The processes of 
nutrition, digestion and assimilation are at their 
best. All that is required to maintain this condi- 
tion of balance is that the animal be kept under 
sanitary conditions and receive a sufficient quantity 
of healthful, nutritious food and pure water. It 
may be possible by the use of such substances to 
improve the appetite so that an animal will ingest 
and possibly digest more food, but should the in- 
creased quantity of nutrient constituents elaborated 
not be appropriated by the tissues of the body, harm 
may result from the overloading of the lymphatic 
system or from an increased activity of the ex- 
cretory organs. In the case of sick animals there 
are abnormal conditions to be taken into considera- 
tion, such as loss of appetite, weakened digestion, 
poor circulation and malnutrition. Until every or- 
gan performs its normal function a state of health 
does not, cannot exist. If by the administration of 
a tonic, stimulant or an alterative it is possible to 
restore to a normal condition any organ so that 



96 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

it can perform its function, then every organ in 
the body is benefited." 

Station Tests with Stock Foods. — Hills of the 
Vermont Station fed Nutriotone to cows and re- 
ports as follows : "The material does not appear to 
have increased productiveness in this particular ex- 
periment." Bartlett of Maine says, "In neither of 
these cases did Nutriotone have any effect, either 
favorable or otherwise." Sir John Bennett Lawes, 
the late well-known English investigator, after ex- 
amining the merits of condimental stock foods, said: 
"In conclusion I feel bound to say that I should 
require much clearer evidence than any that has 
hitherto been adduced to satisfy me that the bal- 
ance-sheet of my farm would present a more satis- 
factory result at the end of the year were I to give 
each horse, ox, sheep and pig a daily allowance of 
one of these costly foods." 

After feeding condimental stock foods to dairy 
cows at the Kansas Station, the experimenter con- 
cludes that they "are worthless for dairy cows ac- 
customed to a good balanced ration." 

The New Jersey Experiment Station in making a 
summary of all feeding experiments with condi- 
mental foods says, "In thirteen of sixteen experi- 
ments the addition of condimental foods either had 
no effect at all or was actually a detriment to the 
ration, while in three experiments they had a slight- 
ly favorable effect, but in each case the yield was 
accompanied by a greatly increased cost of the 
product." 

These are facts concerning stock foods as they 
are found by careful and impartial investigation. 
It is difficult to understand how such foods can be 
sold at from $100 to $200 per ton, with oil meal, 
cottonseed meal and gluten meal bringing not more 
than $30 per ton. 



CHAPTER IX. 

SUMMER PASTURE FOR DAIRY COWS. 

Early Spring Pasture. — After cows have been 
confined to dry feed all winter, the first green blades 
in the spring are eagerly sought and are eaten with 
great relish. Fresh pasture invariably increases the 
flow of milk, especially when the cows have not 
been receiving silage. 

Rye sown early the previous fall will make a good 
growth and will provide an abundance of green 
pasture three or four weeks before grass is ready. 
It can be sown in the corn at the time of the last 
cultivation, and if the field is to be again planted to 
corn it will furnish an abundance of pasture up to 
the time for plowing the ground. Rye sown in the 
cornfield will also make the ground wash less dur- 
ing fall and spring, and when turned under it adds 
humus to the soil. Rye is not so well relished as 
grass, though early in the spring before grass ap- 
pears it seems to be appreciated. 

Winter wheat is sometimes pastured in early 
spring and afterwards allowed to ripen. If there is 
a good growth a little pasturing probably does it 
no harm.. It is similar to rye in its efifect upon the 
milk flow, and is, if anything, a little more pala- 
table. 

Blue grass pasture has no superior for milk pro- 
duction, partly because of its composition and part- 
ly because it is more relished than other grasses. 
No matter how well cows are fed in winter they 
increase their flow when turned on an abundance of 
fresh blue grass in the spring. The one objection 

97 



98 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

to blue grass is that it stops growth during the hot, 
dry weather of late summer, which often makes it 
necessary to cut green crops to supplement it. 

Brome grass, which is comparatively new in the 
United States, stands dry weather well because of 
its longer roots. It is for this reason very popular 
in the drier parts of the country. It starts early 
in the spring and yields well for a plant adapted 
only for pasturing. Other grasses, including 
meadow fescue, orchard grass, etc., are used for 
cow pasture and should be sown if they seem to be 
best adapted to a given locality. 

The legumes, clover and alfalfa, are also used for 
pasture plants, though the latter is almost certain 
to cause the death of some of the co^X-s from bloat 
unless sown mixed with other grasses. Of the clo- 
vers, the small white clover seems to be most rel- 
ished as a pasture plant. 

Mixed grass pastures are in favor because they 
furnish variety and usually produce more food per 
acre. If one grass fails on account of dry weather, 
another hardier variety grows more luxuriantly in 
its stead. 

Feeding Grain on Pasture. — The Cornell Experi- 
ment Station (New York) for a series of years fed 
grain on grass pasture, from which test it was con- 
cluded that while grain often increases the milk 
flow, the extra flow does not compensate for the 
grain fed, and is, therefore, not a profitable prac- 
tice Avhen grass is abundant. This conclusion has 
also been reached in other states. If for any rea- 
son pasture is scarce, then grain or soiling crops 
should be supplied. 

Soiling, by which is meant cutting green crops 
and feeding while still fresh, is very ■ commonly 
practiced in Europe and Eastern United States. 
Soiling usually begins in July, when pastures are 



SUMMER PASTURE FOR DAIRY COWS. 99 

likely to become dry and scanty. By its practice 
dairymen are often able to keep many more cows 
on a given acreage of land, one acre in soiling crops 
producing as much as two or three acres of pasture. 
The labor connected with soiling is the one thing 
which will not make this practice popular in the 
\\'est, where at that season of the year farmers 
already have difficulty in securing sufficient help. 
Soiling is more to be recommended for dairy 
specialists, on account of which it is not the pur- 
pose of the writer to enter into the details of the 
system for the benefit of the general farmer. Brief- 
ly, it consists of growing certain crops which fur- 
nish an abundance of green feed at successive 
periods during the season. Such crops as rye, 
clover, alfalfa, oats and peas mixed, early and late 
corn, sorghum, etc., are planted at a time to insure 
a continuous supply of green though fairly mature 
feed, which is supposed to last until late fall. With 
the advent of the silo many prefer to put up enough 
silage to last during the summer, claiming it is less 
expensive than regular soiling crops. 

Flies become very troublesome in late summer, 
not only reducing the milk flow but also causing no 
little annoyance to the milker. The Kansas Station 
recommends the following as a fly dope for milch 
cows: Two cakes of laundry soap are dissolved in 
warm water, into which solution there is mixed ij^ 
pounds of resin, ^2 pint of hsli oil and sufficient 
water to make 3 gallons. This may be applied with 
a brush, or as a spray by adding >4 pint of kerosene 
oil. About >4 pint is put on each cow two or three 
times a week until the hair becomes coated with 
resin. 

Were one to figure the cost of material, and labor 
of putting on the dope, there is little doubt but that 
some sort of a blanket would he more economical 



100 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

in the end. Blankets may be made from gunny sack- 
ing; or those with elastic bands, protecting the 
under side of the body as well as the upper, may be 
purchased from dealers at from $i to $1.25 each. 

Shelter in Summer. — Many overcome the fly and 
heat difficulty by housing the cows in a dark but 
cool stable during the day, pasturing in the field 
at night. Green crops freshly cut are fed in the 
barn. A basement barn is preferable, though any 
barn with a tight floor above the cows, giving an 
air space between this floor and the roof, does very 
well. If the cows are kept in the field during the 
day, it is essentially important that they have shade 
trees. 

Fresh -water should be found in every pasture or 
conveniently near. The work of milk elaboration, 
whether in winter or summer, requires a large sup- 
ply of water. 

Salt should be fed regularly or kept before the 
cows at all times. Common salt or pulverized rock 
is preferable to rock salt. A box kept under roof is' 
perhaps best for furnishing a continuous supply. 

Dry Cows. — If the cows are fresh in the fall, late 
summer feeding should give no special concern, as 
every cow should be dry at that season for at least 
six or eight weeks. For the cow not giving milk, 
green feed is less needed, which is one argument in 
favor of having cows fresh in the fall. 

The dry cow in winter will do well without 
grain, if she has roughage of the right character. 
The calf in ntcro needs for its best development a 
large proportion of protein material, while the cow 
needs for her own maintenance a surplus of heat 
and energy-making material, such as carbohydrates 
and fats. Any of the legumes, whether alfalfa, 
clover or cowpea hay, will supply protein. In fact, 
any of these alone will furnish more protein than 



SUMMER PASTURE FOR DAIRY COWS. lOI 

is actually needed by the cow and her calf. For 
the sake of variety, too, there should be fed with one 
of these protein fodders something more starchy, 
and at the same time less expensive, as corn sto- 
ver, prairie hay, sorghum, or even oat straw if 
any of the others are not available. Any one or 
more of the last named fodders should not consti- 
tute more than one-third to one-half the entire 
ration by weight, the remainder consisting of the 
protein roughage. Should the roughage be inferior 
in quality, it would be necessary to supply a little 
grain in addition. 

Feeding the Fresh Cow. — Immediately after the 
birth of the calf the cow will be weak and fever- 
ish. In that condition she will require considerable 
water — which should be slightly warmed — but will 
show little inclination for food. Whatever is given 
her should be of a light character, such as well- 
cured clover or alfalfa and a little bran, preferably 
made into a mash by the use of warm water. A 
few pounds of bran will have a cooling and laxative 
effect, which is always beneficial just after calving. 
The following day, four or five pounds of a mixture 
of equal parts of corn, oats and bran would prove 
satisfactory. Without oats it would be well to feed 
equal parts by weight of corn and bran, gradually 
increasing the corn to three-fourths of the grain 
ration, at the same time making the daily feed 
gradually larger until at the end of three weeks she 
is receiving a full ration of ten or twelve pounds 
of grain per day, the exact amount depending upon 
the size of the cow. In the meantime the cow 
should be given all the clover or alfalfa hay she will 
consume. 

The Abusive Treatment of the Milch Cow a 
Positive Source of Loss. — Every animal is capable 
of doing its best when the conditions are most fa- 



I02 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

vorable for quietness and contentment. All harsh 
treatment results in a waste of nervous energy at 
the expense of food. In the case of the milch cow 
gentleness in handling is still more important, inas- 
much as milk secretion is a part of "maternity" in 
animals, and anything in the way 'of unkindness 
tends to suppress this instinct, lessening the flow 
of milk accordingly. If the cow is well treated she 
will feel kindly toward her attendant, and at least 
one condition will be favorable for maximum pro- 
duction. If a cow acts "mean" there is always some 
cause for it — either she inherits a nervous disposi- 
tion and for that reason must be dealt with pa- 
tiently, or she has been made "suspicious" by hav- 
ing had, at some time in her life, unkind treatment. 




Dairy Cows in Pasture. 



CHAPTER X. 

REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK. 

Whole Milk Costly. — In farming sections where 
dairy cows are kept for butter making, it is custom- 
ary to raise calves on skim milk. This ma}' be milk 
from which the cream has risen and has been 
skimmed in the usual way, or it may be milk from 
which the cream has been extracted by the use of 
the separator. While the butter fat may be re- 
moved more perfectly by the use of the separator, 
leaving the milk obtained by this process less rich 
than the gravity milk, there is after all so little dif- 
ference in the food value of the two kinds that 
whatever is said concerning the feeding of one will 
apply also to the other. 

In view of the fact that whole milk is the natural 
and most perfect food for young animals and that 
fresh skim milk only differs from whole milk in 
that it contains but little or no fat, it would seem 
that, were it possible to substitute some less ex- 
pensive but equally digestible fat for butter fat, just 
as good results could be secured from feeding skim 
milk. Theoretically this is correct. In practice it 
is extremely difficult to make the conditions suf- 
ficiently favorable to secure the same thrift in the 
skim milk calf as is ordinarily found in the well 
nourished sucking calf. The latter not only has the 
milk in its original composition, uncontaminated by 
bacteria and perfectly warmed, but he is also com- 
pelled by force of circumstances to take milk into 
the stomach slowly, making it more easily acted 
upon by the digestive fluids and less apt to cause 

103 



I04 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

scours. But even though the whole-milk calf is 
somewhat better raised, butter fat is so valuable as 
a commercial article, that feeding whole milk or 
permitting calves to suck their dams is an extrava- 
gant practice on good farming lands. Skim milk, 
therefore, is to be chiefly relied upon for growing 
all calves on the farm except pure-breds of the beef 
breeds. How to obtain best results from feeding 
skim milk is worthy of careful consideration. 

Early Feeding. — The young calf should be given 
a good start by having fresh whole milk at least 
the first week. It is better for the cow if the calf 
is fed from the pail the second or third day after 
birth, and the calf may be taught to drink with less 
trouble at this age than later. From four to six 
quarts a day, 'depending upon the size of the calf, 
is enough during the first week. If this amount 
could be given in three feeds it would be better 
for the calf. During the second week the feeding 
may be done twice a day, and a little skim milk — 
perhaps a half pint — substituted for whole milk, the 
amount to be increased very gradually until at the 
end of three weeks the whole milk is entirely with- 
drawn, when the calf should be receiving from five 
to seven quarts of skim milk per day. At the close 
of the second month eight or nine quarts may ordi- 
narily be fed a good-sized calf without inducing 
scours, which sometimes result from overfeeding on 
milk. At four months of age ten quarts may be 
given, and at five months eleven quarts. 

Scours. — Should a calf become afifected with 
scours, a raw egg mixed in the milk will usually 
bring relief, or, if a severe case, a tablespoonful of 
castor oil, followed by a raw egg every two hours 
until four to six eggs are taken. A teaspoonful of 
soluble blood meal, another form of albumen — sold 
by the packing houses for about 3 cents a pound — 



REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK. I05 

stirred in the milk will act in a way similar to the 
egg and is much less expensive. The Kansas Sta- 
tion reports excellent results with dried blood 
(blood meal), claiming that a mild case of scours 
can be cured in one or two days by adding a tea- 
spoonful to the milk, which last should be tempo- 
rarily reduced in quantity. The Idaho Station rec- 
ommends foi- scours an ounce of lime water added 
to the milk. 

Skim milk should be warmed to a temperature of 
90 to 100 degrees Fahrenheit before feeding. Cold 
milk chills the calf and often brings on digestive 
disorders. On the other hand, if milk is heated to 
the scalding point the albumen coagulates and rises 
to the top in the form of a scum, which coagulation 
renders it less digestible. Every one, wdio raises 
calves on skim milk should be provided wdth a 
small glass thermometer that may be hung with 
the bulb submerged in the milk, by which means 
the warming may be discontinued at the proper 
time. 

The feeding buckets should be made of tin or 
galvanized iron, having just as few seams as possi- 
ble. Milk is likely to collect in these seams, where 
it becomes charged with bacteria, these micro-or- 
ganisms affecting the milk in such a way as to set 
up fermentation and consequent indigestion in the 
calf. Infection from bacteria can only be avoided 
by thoroughly washing and scalding the buckets 
after each feed. Probably more than half the dis- 
orders prevalent among skim milk calves have their 
source in unscalded buckets. The calf is very 
susceptible to disorders from contamination. At 
creameries skim milk is often sterilized by introduc- 
ing steam from the boilers, which makes it more 
wholesome. 

Fat Substitutes. — Several concentrated foodstuffs 



I06 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

rich in fat have been tested as butter fat substitutes. 
Flaxseed meal is richest in fat and can be used very 
successfully. Soon after a part of the whole milk 
is withdrawn and skim milk is fed in its stead, a 
tablespoonful of flaxseed meal may be stirred in the 
milk each day just before feeding-. Making a jelly 
by pouring hot water on flaxseed meal is an 
excellent way of feeding this meal. A table- 
spoonful of jelly may be added to each feed, 
the amount gradually increased until as high as 
a half pound per day is fed to the six-weeks-old 
calf. Old process linseed meal is often used in the 
same way, though it is less rich in fat. Corn germ 
meal, a by-product from the manufacture of glucose 
and corn starch, is also made to serve as a substi- 
tute for butter fat. Corn oil, another by-product 
made by glucose factories, has recently been tested 
by the Nebraska Experiment Station, but with re- 
sults less satisfactory because of the cathartic effect 
of the oil. It is, furthermore, difficult to mix corn 
oil with skim milk. Flaxseed and linseed meal are 
well adapted for early feeding-, because they con- 
tain little or no starch, and the very young calf is 
lacking the necessary equipment for digesting 
starch. Whole milk contains sugar, but no starch. 
Mixing flaxseed jelly with the milk need not be con- 
tinued after the first few weeks, as dry grain 
should be fed separately just as soon as'the calf can 
be induced to eat it. By putting grain in the 
bottom of the bucket after the milk has been con- 
sumed it can be fed early, and this practice has the 
further advantage of diverting the attention of the 
calf, causing him to eat grain rather than to suck 
the ears of his mates, which seems to be a natural 
tendency with calves after drinking milk. 

Stanchions overcome the sucking habit most 
effectually, and they have the further advantage of 



RELf\RING CALVES ON SKIM MILK, IO7 

being wonderfully convenient when several calves 
are kept together, as by their use all the calves may 
be quickly and securely held as long as seems neces- 
sary. The stanchion is a simple contrivance made 
of narrow boards fixed vertically and sufficiently 
far apart to permit the calf to enter his head at 
feeding time, the attendant thereupon fastening the 
boards closely enough together to make it impossi- 
ble for the head to be drawn out. On the floor or 
ground in front is a feed box just wide enough to 
hold a pail firmly and long enough to accommodate 
the desired number of calves. The lumber required 
for ten stanchions, as given by the Kansas Experi- 
ment Station, is as follows : 

1 piece I"xl2"xl2', for bottom of feed-box. 

2 pieces I"xl2"xl6', for bottom of feed-box (8 ft.), upright 
partitions (24). 

2 pieces I"x6"xl0', for front of feed-box. 
5 pieces I"x6"xl6', cypress or full-thickness pine, foj top 
and bottom rails. 

5 pieces I"x4"xl2', full thickness, for fixed uprights. 

2 pieces I"x4"xl6', %" thick, for swinging uprights. 
10 pieces 3"x6"xl", for tongues or locks. 

3 posts 6 feet in length. 

3 blocks 6"xl2" under feed-box. 

"The stanchions are two feet wide between the 
partitions and three and one-half feet high. The 
board along the front of the feed boxes is hinged, 
so it may be turned down and the boxes thoroughly 
cleaned out. At the end of the stanchion is a rack 
for hay. With these stanchions a feeder can keep 
four pails going and can feed a bunch of calves in a 
very short time." (See illustration, page 112.) 

Grain Feeding. — Not only can milk be fed more 
conveniently by use of the stanchions, but the 
calves can be induced to eat dry grain earlier by 
having them thus fastened. After drinking milk 
they seem to crave something to put in the mouth, 
and if other calves' ears are not within reach they 



I08 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

very often nibble at grain placed before them even 
when they are but ten days or two weeks old. For 
young calves nothing superior to oats seems to have 
been discovered. At an early age, too, calves show 
an inclination for something bulky, which craving 
should be satisfied, as it is but a manifestation of a 
physiological law. Oats, which are easily digested, 
furnish bulk, and, in addition to these advantages, 
contain a rather high percentage of fat. No farm 
food in common use excels oats in their tendency to 
counteract scours in calves. Whole oats seem bet- 
ter than the ground grain. 

As the calf becomes a little older a small portion 
of shelled corn may be added, increasing the amount 
to equal parts of oats and corn as weaning time 
approaches. Here again the whole grain is prefer- 
able. It has a fresher flavor, inasmuch as meal 
sometimes taints from exposure, the oil being most 
susceptible to decomposition. Calves, furthermore, 
seem fond of cracking the whole grains. The Kan- 
sas Station in a recent test found the whole grain 
considerably more profitable than the meal. Bran, 
rich in both mineral matter and protein for bone 
development, is sometimes added, though it is often- 
times rather too laxative for calves receiving skim 
milk; the milk, too, furnishes all the protein needed. 
By a judicious use of farm grains, commercial 
foods, while often profitable, are not essential. 

Quantity of Grain Most Profitable for Skim Milk 
Calves. — The following, again furnished by the 
Kansas Station, are timely data upon this subject: 



REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK, 



109 



H^ 










H ^ 
















orq 










S r 








•-s 


5 »= V 








tpoq 








so 


<T> cr.orp 








^B 








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^ 


P B 








i-< 








p 


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»s 










rt--0 














0' 










OQ "^ 








3 


03 . 








^§ 








o" 


















f" 










B S- 











g 1 Number of calves 




p 




,_» 


^^ 






<-+ 










.£k 


j^ Days fed 








a 




























^ 


M 








rt- 










05 
-J3 


05 


Skim milk 








1-1 


















00 
Oi 


4^ ~ 


Shelled corn 


Q 














clo ^ 




p_ 












CB 


b 




3' 

Hi 












1—1 1— I 

05 X 


!t3 't) 






00 


k- 


Ground 


£, 




p 00 








00 


b 


Kafir corn. . . 




















P 


















QfQ 

5" 
on 




-1 

05 


10 


la 

5' p, 


1 




^-i CO 


■3 













tf^ *- 


§-5^ 






OS 




Prairie hay 










-^ 


















t— 1 


fe^ 


2. 




Oi 




Alfalfa hay 


W 




-J 


^ 






yl 


00 ?= 









Oi pi 


Pr* 


•'^ 




io 


Oi 




c 




--1 ^-' 















CfQ 




•^ ^ 




3 

i 




-^1 

pi 

io 


-5 1-' 

P M 

b 


Oat hay 


3" 
3 














&j 






^" 




IC 





2 




4^ 

05 


ooC 

C5 GO 


Mixed hay 




l-J 00 


S' 














ta 05 



























3i 


: a" 


Tame hay 












05 *- 


« w 














to 


B 


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h-i bi 


rD IS 


5' 




JO 

To 

01 


"as 3- 
b 









> s 

> cl 

^ Ed 

§ w 



no PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

If the skim milk is figured at 15 cents per hun- 
dred, as is customary, the roughness $5 per ton, 
and the grain 70 cents per hundred, each pound of 
gain on the heavy or full grain ration costs 3.17 
cents, while on three-quarters of a full grain feed 
the cost would be 4.85 cents, a favorable showing 
for a full feed of grain in connection with skim 
milk. The table is of interest in that it shows how 
much of the different feeds was consumed during 
the 140 days. Kafir corn was fed ground, because 
the seeds are small and hard. In another test 30 
per cent was saved by grinding Kafir corn. 

Roughage of the best quality the farm affords 
should be placed within reach of calves when two 
or three weeks old. Prairie hay is more constipat- 
ing than alfalfa, though the latter is much more 
relished, and, if an early cutting, is not likely to be 
excessively loosening. Clover is first-class — very 
much better than timothy, which is rather too 
harsh and coarse for young calves. 

Pasture for skim milk calves should not be too 
watery, because of its laxativeness. Turning spring 
calves out early is, therefore, not to be recom- 
mended. Even in later summer many prefer to 
stable such calves, because flies seem unusually ir- 
ritating to these young animals. Oats are an excel- 
lent grain for calves on pasture. 

Weaning from milk is a matter which should not 
be hasterred. While four months on milk is more 
nearly the usual period of feeding, six months is 
better when it can be done conveniently. If the 
calves are receiving grain liberally at weaning time, 
there will follow but a very light shrinkage, much 
lighter than in the case of sucking calves. 

The cost of raising a skim milk calf was deter- 
mined at the Kansas Station by averaging the re- 
sults of thirteen different experiments, the average 



REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK. Ill 

period of feeding being 125 days. With skim milk 
at 15 cents per hundred, grain at 50 cents per hun- 
dred and roughness at $4 per ton, each calf con- 
sumed milk costing $2.52, grain $1.27, roughness 
$1.51, while labor cost $2.13, making a total of $7.43. 

The patent calf feeders, as put on the market, are 
easily contaminated, because the nipples are diffi- 
cult to clean. This seems to be the chief reason 
why those who have tested them are unfavorable 
to their use. 

Dehorning Calves. — Stock cattle without horns 
ordinarily outsell horned cattle of the same quality 
from 15 to 25 cents per hundred, which is the 
strongest kind of an argument in favor of dehorn- 
ing. The operation is simple and causes so little 
discomfort to the animal if done on calves by 
means of caustic potash, a brief statement concern- 
ing the use of the caustic seems pertinent. 

When the calf is three or four days old, clip the 
hair from where the rudimentary horns, or buttons, 
later appear, and with a stick of caustic potash, 
wrapped at one end to protect the lingers, rub over 
the button until the skin becomes a little inflamed 
and more or less tender to the touch. A scab will 
appear after a few days and further growth of the 
horn will cease. Caustic is exceedingly painful if 
allowed to run down over the face. This work 
should be done before the horns break through the 
skin, necessarily within a few days after the birth 
of the calf. 

Shelter for calves is important in winter, because 
small cattle are much more susceptible to cold 
weather than larger ones. Straw bedding should 
be used liberally to keep the ground dry and to 
provide a comfortable bed. Shelter during the hot 
summer weather is also desirable because of 
troublesome flies. Calves should not, however, be 
deprived of sunshine the entire day. If confined 



112 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

during the middle of hot summer days, they should 
be given the privilege of the pasture lot the re- 
mainder of the day for both light and exercise. In 
winter, c.alves should have the sun's rays as much 
as possible. 

Fresh, pure water should be provided in addition 
to milk. 

Salt is also needed. For convenience it can be 
placed in a box nailed within the shelter, where the 
calves may lick it whenever so inclined. Loose 
salt is preferable to rock salt. 

With the exercise of skill and attention to details, 
calves may be reared on skim milk very success- 
fully. Probably no animals of any class are more 
responsive to skillful treatment. It is certainly a 
less expensive method of producing the first few 
hundred pounds of beef than to permit the calves 
to draw whole milk from the dam ; and, while they 
may have less bloom and rotundity of form, they 
will have sufficient digestive capacity to insure good 
future ffains. 




REAR VIEW OF CALF STANCHIONS AS USED AT THE KAN- 
SAS EXPERIMENT STATION. 



PART III 

BEEF CATTLE 

CHAPTER XI. 

BEEF TYPE. 

Meat as a Food. — Notwithstanding the fact that 
there exists a class of people known as vegetarians 
who are using their influence against the consump- 
tion of meat, the industry promises to continue. 
Americans are particularly fond of meat. We have 
the reputation of being the heaviest meat-consum- 
ing nation in the world, and many attribute much 
of our rapid social and industrial advancement to 
this fact. Meat is too high in price to be used as a 
staple article of food in the Old World except in 
the more wealthy families. The study of more eco- 
nomical methods of production, to keep the supply 
in America more nearly at a pace with the growing 
demands of an increasing population, would seem, 
therefore, to be of vital interest to consumer as 
well as to producer. 

Nearly all meat consumed comes from domesti- 
cated farm animals — cattle, sheep and swine fur- 
nishing by far the larger part, though fowls must 
be given recognition for their place in meat as well 
as egg production. These classes of animals will 
be discussed in the order given, because of a 
greater similarity between the first two in the 
matter of food requirements. 

113 



114 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Quality of the finished product has been men- 
tioned as one of the two important factors in profit- 
able feeding. Quahty is important because it 
means a higher price per pound for the meat animal 
when marketed, though produced at no greater cost 
for food consumed. It is obtained by feeding prop- 
erly balanced rations to animals of good type. 

A meat animal is of good type, (I) which prom- 
ises when properly fattened to satisfy the demands 
of the market, and (II) which also has sufficient 
vigor of constitution and power of assimilation to 
make satisfactory gains in the feed-lot. 

I. Percentage of Dressed Weight Influenced 
by Type as Well as by Fatness. — The market calls 
for an animal which will, first of all, dress with- 
out excessive offal, or waste. Other things be- 
ing equal, the fatter the animal the higher the 
per cent of dressed weight. This is true because 
the meat animal is both a manufacturing institu- 
tion and a storehouse for its own goods. As the 
fattening process goes on. weight is added to the 
carcass with little or no increase in the weight of 
the machinery. 

The importance of condition in its relation to 
selling price will be better understood by the state- 
ment that a thin 1,200-pound steer worth 5 cents 
per pound on foot, dressing 50 per cent, would 
yield enough more meat, were it fat enough to dress 
60 per cent, to make it worth 6 cents per pound in- 
stead of 5. 

But fatness alone does not determine the per- 
centage of waste. Individual specimens of cattle, 
sheep, or swine in the same condition vary in per 
cent of waste, because some individuals are nat- 
urally heavy in those parts which constitute offal. 
Unimproved animals, commonly called scrubs, dress 
with more waste because they have not been bred 



BEEF TYPE. II5 

for thick carcasses. The dairy breeds of cattle 
when fattened are likely to have more waste than 
the beef breeds, because they are larger in paunch, 
or barrel. The mutton breeds of sheep dress higher 
than the wool breeds, while the so-called "lard" 
breeds of swine dress higher than the bacon breeds. 
In the matter of market carcass requirements for 
cattle, sheep and swine there is a marked similarity, 
so much so that whatever is said concerning beef 
carcasses will apply in a general way to sheep and 
swine, with exceptions as hereafter stated. 

Beef Carcass Requirements. — A choice beef car- 
cass (I) should be proportionately heavy in those 
parts which sell for the highest prices and corre- 
spondingly light in the cheaper cuts. (2) It should 
not be heavy in bone. (3) It should have a pre- 
dominance of lean tissue. (4) The fat should be 
evenly distributed over the carcass, not occurring in 
patches or "gobs," and flakes of fat should be dis- 
tributed between the fibers of lean. (5) The lean 
fibers should not be coarse, and they should be light 
red rather than dark in color, and tender in charac- 
ter. 

(i) Large Proportion of High Priced Meat. — 
To be profitable on the block the beef animal 
must be endowed by Nature with a broad back, 
which covers thickly with meat as the fattening 
process nears completion. The importance of the 
broad, thick back will be at once apparent by re- 
ferring to Fig. I, which shows the location of each 
market cut of beef and the retail price per pound 
in the average Western market. The price which 
the consumer is willing to pa}' for these different 
cuts is a good criterion of their relative values. In 
the markets of large Eastern cities, where there is 
more wealth, the choicer cuts sell relatively higher, 
because there is a greater demand for them. 



ii6 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 




Figure 1. — Ausiis steer, side view, showing Ijulcdei's cuts Live 
weight, 1,550 lbs. ; dressed weight, 1,046 lbs. Retail prices 
(western): (1) neck, 40 lbs. at 4 cts.; (2) chuck, 237 lbs. 
at 7 cts.; (?>) prime of rib, 117 lbs. at 121/2 cts.; (4) porter- 
house steak, 103 lbs. at 18 cts. ; (5) sirloin steak, 87 lbs. at 
15 cts.; (6) rump, 36 lbs. at 10 cts.; (7) round steak, 183 
lbs. at 10 cts.; (8) shank, 30 lbs. at 2 cts.; (9) flank, 52 lbs. 
at 4 cts. ; (10) ribs plate, 138 lbs. at 5 cts. ; (11) shank, 23 
lbs. at 2 cts. 




Figure 2. — Jersey steer, side view, showing heavy middle and light 
hind quarters. 



BEEF TYPE. 



117 




Fig. 3 — Hear view of tlie Angus and Jersey steers, sliowiug strong 
contrast in the development of back, loin, rump, and thighs. 




(1) Rib cut from the Angus steers, wt. 117 lbs., 11.1% of the 

carcass. 

(2) Rib cut from the Jersey steer, wt. 70 lbs., 10.1% of the 

carcass. 



Il8 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

From the diagram it will also be seen that the 
hind quarter has valuable meat, though somewhat 
less valuable than the back. It is important, there- 
fore, that the finished steer should have a broad 
rump and full, wide thighs. The cheaper cuts are 
the plates, neck and shoulder, none of which should 
be excessively large. 

(2) Bone. — The proportion of bone to meat 
should not be large, as the consumer does not wish 
to pay meat prices for bone. Some individuals 
possess altogether more bone than is necessary. 
This is particularly true of the unimproved types 
of cattle. 

To illustrate what has already been said con- 
cerning beef type, the reader is asked to compare 
the high-grade Angus steer shown in Fig. i with 
the high-grade Jersey, in Fig. 2. The Angus 
weighed 1,600 pounds and the Jersey 1,230 pounds, 
although the Jersey was three months older. The 
rations fed these steers were the same in character, 
and both animals were fat and ripe when slaugh- 
tered. The Jersey dressed 7 per cent less than the 
Angus ; and of the 7 per cent more ofifal in the 
Jersey, 3 per cent consisted of fat deposited about 
the stomach, intestines and kidneys — worth in the 
retail market 2 cents per pound. This is an illustra- 
tion of the greater dressing capacity of the good 
beef type over the inferior. The larger middle of 
the Jersey, as seen in the illustration, is entirely 
consistent with the figures given. 

By referring to Fig. 3 we have a rear view of the 
same two steers, showing the broad, thick back and 
loin, full rump and wide, full thighs of the Angus 
as compared with the Jersey. The fullness of flesh 
well down and toward the gambrel, permitting the 
retailer to cut round steak much lower on the 
Angus, is strongly brought out in the photograph. 



BEEF TYPE. IIQ 

In this case no one would maintain that the Jersey 
had as much high-priced meat as the Angus. The 
picture of the rib cuts in these two steers shows a 
larger proportion of this choice meat in the Angus. 
While the Jersey in the illustration does not show 
an extremely heavy bone, it is much more pro- 
nounced than in the Angus. The smooth, well- 
covered Angus has the appearance of a package of 
beef with only enough bone to give it permanency 
of form. In the Jersey, or inferior butcher's type, 
bone stands out prominently — hips, shoulders and 
ribs being poorly covered. 

(3) Predominance of Lean Desirable. — Individ- 
ual specimens vary considerably in the proportion 
of fat to lean. In a recent carcass test with high- 
grade Angus steers fed in the same manner, the 
writer found that the lean muscle which extends 
over the back measured in one case four inches 
thick, while in another individual it measured four 
and three-fourths of an inch in thickness. The 
steer with a 4-inch muscle had a covering of i^ 
inches of chine fat, while the steer with a 4^-inch 
muscle had but i inch of fat covering. This differ- 
ence was not due to feed or breed, but rather to a 
difference in type. When undergoing judgment on 
foot, the steer whose back presented less fat and 
more lean showed a firmness under pressure of 
the hand, while the fatty steer was soft. 

(4) Evenness of Flesh. — A certain amount of fat 
covering, however, is desirable, inasmuch as it pro- 
tects the lean during the ripening process. Meat 
is very much more tender and palatable after it 
has hung in the coolers a few weeks and has been 
allowed to ripen. If it is not covered with a layer 
of fat, it becomes tainted from exposure to the 
atmosphere. It is neither necessary nor desirable, 
however, to have the fat layer excessively thick. 



I20 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

There are some individuals, more commonly in cer- 
tain beef breeds, which have a tendency to accumu- 
late fat in patches, or gobs. In the live animals this 
is most noticeable about the tail-head. It also 
occurs as rolls over the ribs. Such accumulations 
of fat are undesirable, because they must be cut off 
as so much tallow worth but a few cents per pound. 
Fat should not only be evenly distributed over the 
carcass, but a certain amount should also be found 
distributed between the fibers of lean as flakes. 
This makes the lean more tender and juicy. Ani- 
mals which have a firmness of flesh free from 
patches are likely to have this admixture of fat 
and lean. 

(5) Meat Fiber. — Meat inclined to be coarse in 
fiber is less tender and palatable. Coarsness in bone 
and hair is usually associated with coarseness in 
meat grain. In the live animal we therefore have 
a guide which is indicative of quality in the grain 
of meat. Tenderness of fiber is a question of age 
more than of type. Old animals, no matter how 
good in type or finish, must be sold at a discount, 
because the meat will be tough. The three-year- 
old steer would not be considered past its prime 
in this respect. At any rafe, the market makes no 
discrimination against three-year-old beeves be- 
cause of too much age, though more age than this 
is undesirable, even from the butcher's point of 
view. 

II. Feeder Requisites. — The utility of the ani- 
mal on the block is in itself important, but it is not 
the only requisite of good type. An animal may 
fully satisfy the demands of the butcher, and yet 
not be profitable to the feeder because of failure 
to make satisfactory growth. From the feeder's 
viewpoint an animal (i.) should be capable of mak- 
ing large daily gains from a given supply of food, 
and (2) should mature early. 



BEEF TYPE. 121 

Gaining Propensity. — In the capacity for making 
gains, we find a wide variation among individuals of 
the bovine race. Some steers are known to have gained 
as high as four pounds per day for a short period, 
while others, even under forced feeding, have gained 
but one pound per day. A difiference of .50 per cent 
in the rapidity of making gains is not at all unusual, 
even when in the same condition of flesh. The big 
gainers consume more feed, because they have 
stronger powers of assimilation, but they are more 
economical feeders, inasmuch as less food is consumed 
to make a pound of increase in weight. The capacity 
for making gains is largely a question of inherent vigor 
and active powers of assimilation. 

External Indications of Gaining Capacity. — For- 
tunately for the man who buys cattle for the feed-lot, 
there are certain external qualities which serve as 
an index to feeding capacity. ( i ) The abdominal cav- 
ity, occupying the middle of the animal, should be 
roomy. A steer, slender and tucked up in body, is un- 
able to utilize a large amount of feed and therefore 
cannot make heavy gains. There should be not only 
good depth and breadth of body in the abdominal 
region, but this breadth and depth should extend for- 
ward to include the chest cavity. (2) A lack of 
width through the chest would indicate that the vital 
organs, including lungs and heart, are restricted in 
development. An animal having poor chest develop- 
ment is invariably a slow feeder. This seems reason- 
able in view of the fact that the lungs and heart play 
so important a part in purifying the blood and for- 
cing it to circulate throughout the entire system. 
The blood being the medium which carries off worn- 
out tissue and replaces it with fresh matter taken 
from the digestive tract, is a most important factor 
in digestion and assimilation. If there is a lack of 
lung development — indicated by narrow chest, slen- 



122 



.PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 




Good feeder but poor butcher's type. Grade Angus steer ; age, two 
years, tea months ; weight, 1,8.50 lbs. A remarkable feeder. 
as Indicated by a powerful chest and large abdomen, but a poor 
killer because of too much forequarter, excessive plates and 
gobby fat. This steer was the heaviest of a lot of twelve choice 
Angus steers, but his carcass was valued at $1 per cwt. below 
the others. 




A Soijth Omaha "sunfish." An inferior type from the viewpoint of 
both butcher and feeder. 



BEEF TYPE. 123 

tier neck at the base, and small nostril — the oxida- 
tion, or purification, of the blood must be corre- 
spondingly slow. (3) An active, healthy cir- 
culation of blood, and active digestion and as- 
similation are also indicated by the character 
of the skin and the hair. The outer skin is a 
continuation of the inner skin, which constitutes the 
stomach and the intestines. If the outer skin is dry 
and harsh, lacking in pliableness, we may expect a 
poorly nourished inner skin. A soft, pliable skin, cov- 
ered with a thick, mossy growth of soft, fine hair, 
oily in appearance, is almost a certain indication of 
active digestion and assimilation of food. Drawing 
the skin between thumb and forefinger is the surest 
way of determining its handling quality. In buy- 
ing steers for the feed-lot, however, this is not often 
possible, because of the timidity of the animal. A 
feeder of long experience learns to' associate a 
bright, healthy coat of luxuriant hair with gaining 
capacity. He learns to avoid the skin having the 
appearance of being drawn tightly over the body. 
These are qualities which may be observed by the 
eye. 

Gaining Capacity a Question of Type Rather 
Than Breed. — The ability to make rapid and eco- 
nomical gains is, therefore, a question of type 
rather than of breed. Several experiment sta- 
tions have at various times conducted so-called 
breed tests, in which one or two specimens oi 
each breed, both dairy and beef, have been fed in 
comparison with steers of unknown breeding, com- 
monly called scrubs. These tests have not proved that 
one breed is superior to another, nor that steers of the 
beef breeds are superior as gainers to all dairy bred 
steers and natives. Where a representative of a cer- 
tain breed made the largest gain in one test, a repre- 
sentative of a different breed came out ahead in another 



124 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 




GOOD TYI'E— GRADE HERE- 
FORD. 
Age, one year and six months : 
weight. I.OC).") pounds; gain 2.3 
pounds per day. 



INFERIOR TYPE— GRADE 

HEREFORD. 
Age, one year and ten months ; 
weight, 000 pounds ; gain, one 
pound per day. 



BEEF TYPE. 1 25 

test. These tests have beeii unsatisfactory from a 
feeding point of view, because not enough individuals 
of any one breed were used. They have been of value, 
in that it has been abundantly shown that rapidity of 
"gains is a question of type and condition, not of breed. 
We often find native steers with strong, vigorous con- 
stitutions and they are good gainers, at least for a 
limited period. Steers from a dairy breed like the Hol- 
stein-Friesian usually have strong assimilative powers, 
and there is no reason why they should not make large 
daily gains. We find an occasional Jersey of good 
feeding capacity. Most individuals of this breed, how- 
ever, are of more delicate constitution and do not re- 
spond so well in the feed-lot. In a recent test at the 
Nebraska Experiment Station, grade Angus and Here- 
ford steers two years old gained 75 pounds per month, 
while Jerseys of the same age, fed in the same way, 
inferior in type, gained but 50 pounds per month. The 
beef steers required 73^ pounds of grain for one pound 
of increase, while the Jersey steers consumed 83^ 
pounds of grain for one pound of increase in weight. 
This much is true : there are many more desirable feed- 
ing types to be found in the improved beef 
breeds than in dairy breeds or natives of unknown 
breedings. 

On this subject of the relation of type to gaining 
capacity the Illinois Experiment Station has re- 
cently furnished the most satisfactory and reliable 
data yet found. Six different market grades, 16 in 
each lot, were fed the same rations. These were 
what are called fancy, choice, good, medium, com- 
mon and inferior. Unfortunately, some classes 
were considerably heavier than others, which 
puts them at a disadvantage and therefore gives 
us less satisfactory results for a comparison of each 
of the six grades. But for a comparison of the two 
principal classes, good and common, we have valuable 



126 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING, 

data. The average initial weight of the 48 steers of 
the three best grades, fancy, choice and good, was 
1,022,8 pounds each. The average weight of the 48 
steers of the three poor classes, called medium, com- 
mon and inferior, was 584 pounds each. We thus see 
that if there is any advantage on account of lighter 
weights to begin with, it is in favor of the common 
steers. The average daily gain of the good steers was 
2,48 pounds per day; of the common steers, 2.10 
pounds per day. The good steers consumed 11.37 
pounds of dry matter for one pound of increase in 
weight, while the common steers consumed 12,66 
pounds of dry matter for one pound of increase. 
This was 11 per cent larger gains in favor of the 
good steers over the inferior from the same weight 
of food consumed. 

Early maturity means the tendency of an indi- 
vidual to become sufficiently fat at an early age to 
satisfy the demands of the market. The importance 
of this will be better understood by giving a few 
figures. If an average steer is well fed with grain 
from the age of twelve months to the completion of his 
third year, he will gain, as a yearling, about two 
pounds per day; as a two-year-old, about i^ 
pounds per day; and as a three-year-old, 1^/2 pounds 
per da3^ He therefore makes the largest daily 
gain in early life and makes it on less food. If, how- 
ever, we compare a thin two-year-old with a thin 
yearl.ing, we shall find the former capable of making 
the heavier gains, though less economically. Avera- 
ging six different trials where accurate records were 
kept of gains and cost of food, it is found that 
during the first 12 months each 100 pounds of 
increase in weight costs $3.45 ; the second 12 months 
in the same animal, $7.42 ; and the third 12 months, 
$11.50. It is apparent, therefore, that if a steer can 
be made ripe for market before he reaches the 



BEEF TYPE. 127 

age of three years, the profits will be considerably 
greater. Some steers, no matter how well fed, can- 
not be made sufficiently fat at the age of two years. 
Their increase in weight is in the nature of growth 
of frame rather than thickness of meat. The tendency 
to mature early under liberal feeding is a question of 
type, or conformation. 

Twenty-five years ago practically no beef steers were 
marketed as two-year-olds. This was partly because 
most cattle were then of the late-maturing type and 
could not be made sufficiently fat at two years, and 
partly because the markets then called for heavier cat- 
tle. Today the well-rounded i ,200-pound two-year-old 
commands practically as high a price per pound as the 
large-framed three-year-old of equal flesh. Because 
of this and the fact that the younger steers are more 
economical feeders, as previously shown, it is impor- 
tant for the feeder to be able to select the early-matur- 
ing kind. On the range and in the farming dis- 
tricts, we find both the early and late-maturing 
types, although during recent years breeders have 
been selecting for earlier maturity, and conse- 
quently there are many more individuals of that 
type than formerly. 

Exterior Indications of Early Maturity. — The 
feeding steer to mature early must be compact and 
blocky in build. The long-legged, lanky kind, wide- 
spaced from hip to rib, is invariably one which will 
require an extended period of forced feeding to be 
made fat enough for market. Such steers in a feed-lot 
must be withdrawn and fed longer, or sold at a sacri- 
fice. If they are fed until finished, others must be 
carried beyond the profitable stage for marketing. 
The shape of the head and neck is often a help in 
selecting steers for early maturity. Usually a short, 
broad head and short, thick neck go with a short, 
broad body and short legs. It is always the low- 



128 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



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130 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

down, blocky steers which mature early. In some 
individuals the early-maturing type is carried to 
the extreme, in which case there is often a lack of 
size. Such individuals are most profitable when 
marketed as soon as fat, regardless of size. 

Blocky Steers Easier Keepers. — It is worthy of 
note, too, that the blocky, early-maturing steers 
are also easier keepers, in that they require less 
grain in proportion to hay for laying on flesh and 
keeping in good condition. This is well shown in 
the records of 12 low-down, blocky, Angus steers 
marketed by the Nebraska Experiment Station. 
During the first winter, as calves, six made an average 
gain of ^T, pounds 'each per month on prairie and alfalfa 
hay, without grain. The remaining six gained 60 
pounds per month on but four pounds of mixed grain 
each per day, with a liberal allowance of hay. The 
following summer all were given grass only, and 
the second winter a light grain ration. They were 
finished with grain on grass the next summer, and 
in November, at the age of 29 months, averaged 
1,480 pounds each, and were good enough for 
Christmas beeves. During the two years, these 
steers consumed but 5.7 pounds of grain for one 
pound of increase in weight, or about 15 per cent 
less than is ordinarily required with common 
grades. 

The Ideal Beef Steer. — From what has been said 
on butcher's type and on feeder's type, it will be 
seen that while certain qualities are desirable from 
both points of view, there are other qualities in 
which the butcher and feeder are at variance in 
their demands. As already pointed out, the feeder 
wants a steer with good bone, a good roomy paunch 
and deep, broad chest, while the butcher considers 
undue development in such parts objectionable, be- 
cause of excessive waste and too large a proportion 



BEEF TYPE. 



131 




'Shamrock" — Grand Champion steer at the Chicago International 
Live Stock Exposition, 1902. Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, 
Iowa. 




'Clear Lake Jute" — Grand Champion steer, Chicago International 
Live Stock Exposition, 1904 — Reserve Champion, 1903. Uni- 
versity of Minnesota. 



132 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

of the less valuable meat. Giving both butcher and 
feeder due consideration, a certain standard of per- 
fection, called "scale of points," has been adopted 
for the beef steers, in which each part of the animal 
is given a numerical value according to its impor- 
tance, the whole footing 100 per cent for what 
would be a perfect animal. The following, sug- 
gested by Craig, is in use among most agricul- 
tural colleges. The writer has submitted it to 
the leading judges of England, Scotland and Amer- 
ica. Some have suggested slight changes ; others 
make none. It is quite possible that somewhat 
more importance should be given to chest, rump 
and thigh, although these parts are all included in 
"form," which is given 10 points. 

Score-card for Beef Steer — 

General appearance: 

Weight, according to age 10 

Form, straight top line and underline; deep, broad, low 

set, stylish 10 

Quality, firm handling, hair fine, pliable skin, dense bone, 

evenly fleshed 10 

Condition, deep even covering of firm flesh, especially in 
regions of valuable cuts 10 

Head and neck: 

Muzzle broad, mouth large, jaw wide, nostrils large.... 

Eyes large, clear, placid 

Face short, quiet expression 

Forehead broad, full 

Ears medium size, fine texture 

Horns, fine texture, oval, medium size 

Neck thick, short, throat clean 

Forequarters : 

Shoulder vein, full 2 

Shoulders, covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth .... 2 

Brisket advanced, breast wide 1 

Dewlap, skin not too loose and drooping 1 

Legs straight, short; arm full, shank fine, smooth 2 

Body : 

Chest, full, deep, wide, girth large, crops full 4 

Kibs, long, arched, thickly fleshed 8 

Back, broad, straight, smooth, even 10 

Loin, thick, broad , 8 

Flank, full, even with underline 2 



BEEF TYPE. 133 

Hindquarters: 

Hips, smoothly covered, distance apart in proportion with 

other parts 2 

Eump, long, wide, even, tail head smooth, not patchy. ... 2 

Pin bones, not prominent, far apart 1 

Thighs, full, deep, wide 2 

Twist, deep, plump 2 

Purse, full, indicating fleshiness 2 

Legs, straight, short, shank fine, smooth 2 

Total : 100 

The score-card, while of no particular use to an 
experienced and competent judge in making show 
ring awards, is of value to the amateur ill mak- 
ing a detailed examination of an animal. By its 
use he learns the relative importance of the various 
parts of the animal and becomes more familiar with 
what constitutes ideal beef type. After the correct 
type is fairly well fixed in mind, its further use is 
not recommended. More can then be accomplished 
by close comparisons of individuals without re- 
ferring to a score-card. 

To a man conducting feeding operations, a fair 
conception of what constitutes the most desirable 
type in beef cattle is of the utmost value. In buy- 
ing feeders on the market, where the assortment 
is large and prices asked for different lots are ex- 
tremely variable, injudicious purchases are easily 
possible, and are often made. Sometimes too much 
is paid for the choicer grades, when the less desir- 
able kinds are offered at a price below their real 
value. Usually the better grades are more profita- 
ble in the end, even at prices somewhat higher. 
This is particularly true when feed is high-priced. 
AVhen a purchase is made, the privilege is often 
given the buyer to cull out a stated number. Ina- 
bility to discover the most undesirable individuals 
in a lot, will result in a useless scaling of profits 
from feeding. 



134 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

The Selection of a Herd Bull for Dairy Herd 
of Grade Cows. — While we have been depending 
very largely upon the range country for our feed- 
ing steers, many cattle are now being both grown 
and fattened on farming lands. In order that we 
may breed good cattle for feeding purposes, it is 
highly important that we give to the selection of 
the herd bull the consideration it deserves. Since 
"Like begets like" is a fundamental law of breed- 
ing, we must naturally seek in the herd bull the 
same general type that is most desirable in the 
market steer. We could hardly expect broad- 
backed, thick-quartered steers from fish-backed, 
peaked buils, nor a low-down, early-maturing type 
from a rangy sire. Whatever, then, has been said 
concerning the desirable form for the steer will ap- 
ply as strongly to the bull. 

Prepotency. — But no matter how perfect a bull 
may be in form, if he fails to transmit his characters 
to his offspring he is not a satisfactory animal. 
To be prepotent he must have been bred pure for 
several generations, or until the characters are fair- 
ly well fixed — the longer he has been bred pure 
the more firmly fixed are his characters. A grade 
or cross-bred bull seldom has firmly established 
characters, and therefore will not ordinarily re- 
produce his type with any degree of certainty. On 
the other hand, a line bred, or inbred, bull is likely 
to be very prepotent, because his breeding has been 
confined not only to one breed, but to a certain 
family in that breed. Close inbreeding, however, 
is not usually to be recommended in pure-bred 
herds, because it may result finally in a weakened 
constitution and oftentimes barrenness. For cross- 
ing upon grade cows, a bull of moderate inbreeding, 
good in conformation, is rather to be preferred. 

There are certain external characters denoting 



BEEF TYPE. 




136 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

masculinity in individuals, which also indicate pre- 
potency. They are : a strong, broad head ; a full, 
bright eye, showing vivacity ; curly hair about the 
face; a thick, strong neck with a well-developed 
crest ; strong shoulders ; and a broad chest. A pure- 
bred bull, possessing these strongly masculine char- 
acters, bred to grade or mixed bred cows, is more 
than half the herd, because the offspring from such 
a mating are likely to resemble the sire much more 
than the dam on account of his greater prepotency. 
This is a matter which is too often overlooked in 
purchasing a bull. If a grade bull can be bought 
for a small sum there is a temptation to reject the 
more costly pure-bred. One hundred and fifty dol- 
lars more invested in a good pure-bred bull means 
a cost of one dollar more per calf, assuming that 
the bull gets thirty calves per year for a period of 
five years. This is rather an insignificant sum in 
comparison with the increased value of a calf from 
such a sire. A pure-bred bull, inferior in type, is 
for the same reason worse than a mixed-bred of 
the same type, because more of his calves are likely 
to be inferior. No one, whether ranchman or 
farmer, with a fair-sized herd of cows, should be 
content with anything less than a pure-bred bull of 
good conformation and quality, whether it be a 
Shorthorn, Hereford, Angus or Galloway. The 
choice of breeds will depend more upon locality, 
and is less important than the selection of a good 
individual. 

The Profitable "Farmer's Cow." — In farming dis- 
tricts, where land is high priced, the dairy cow is 
rapidly growing in popular favor. In fact, it is 
now generally admitted that anywhere outside the 
so-called grazing territory, or range, a grade cow 
to be profitable must be a good milker, as it does 
not pay to keep a cow one year for the calf she 



BEEF TYPE. 



137 




Shorthorn bull — "Choice Goods" — an American and English cham- 
pion and a noted breeding sire. Tebo Land and Cattle Com- 
pany, Clinton, Missouri. 




Hereford bull — "Prime Lad." An American champion. 
Van Natta & Sons, Fowler, Indiana. 



W. H. 



138 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

produces, unless it be in a locality where farming 
land is best suited for pasturing purposes. The 
butter or cheese made from a good cow amounts 
to $40 or $50 per year, which, deducting the cost of 
labor, much more than pays for the feed she con- 
sumes. But cows pre-eminently suited for economical 
milk production are not satisfactory beef producers, 
nor are the calves when such cows are bred to 
dairy bulls, as has been shown. Since a good cow, 
properl}^ handled, may be milked with profit for a 
period of at least eight years, and during this time 
will produce, upon an average, four heifer calves, 
it is apparent that for maintaining a dairy herd 
of cows, only one-fourth the cow herd need be bred 
each year to a dairy bull, or the entire herd may be 
bred to such a bull once in four years. All other 
calves are available for beef production and should 
be sired by a beef bull. 

Bulls of Extreme Beef Tendencies Most Suitable 
for Beef Calves from Dairy Cows. — It is important 
in selecting a beef bull that he should carry the 
type to the extreme, in order to cover up, as it 
were, the dairy type of the dam. He should be 
extremely low set, closely coupled, broad over the 
back and loin, wide and deep quartered and natu- 
rally thick-fleshed, possessing in a marked degree 
easy keeping qualities. A mixed-bred, heavy-milk- 
ing cow mated with such a bull will produce a 
calf which, if not the choicest beef type, will be 
found entirely satisfactory in the feed lot — quite 
above the average range steer. 

The writer's experience upon a farm, where such 
a- system is still in practice, has been limited to the 
use of pure-bred Shorthorn and Angus bulls upon 
grade Shorthorn and Holstein milch cows. The 
results were most satisfactory with a low-down, 
compact, pure Scotch Shorthorn bull and an Angus 



BEEF TYPE. 1 39 

bull of the same type. A large number of the cows 
produced enough milk to suckle two calves each, 
for a period of five months, and a third calf the 
remaining five months. A part of the herd acted in 
this capacity, the larger portion of the milk being 
used for cheese making. Calves so handled are 
very good for the production of baby beef; and, 
with a large herd of dairy cows to consume the 
roughness, the method of heavy grain feeding to 
be pursued with the calves for the production of 
baby beef is a most satisfactory one. The heifer 
calves from such sires are also fed out for young 
beef, rather than reserved for dairy purposes, be- 
cause of cheir beef tendencies. Old cows are re- 
placed from outside sources, or a few of the best 
milkers are bred annually to a dairy bull, vealing all 
male calves from such matings. 

The Angus bull now in service has produced 
three crops of calves, all black or dark gray in 
color, and with but one out of ninety having horns, 
though several had small rudimentary ones about 
one inch in length. These calves \yere mostly 
from grade Shorthorn cows leaning toward the 
dairy type. The heifers in the first crop sold 
in the fall, as yearlings finished on blue grass, 
at $4.50 per hundred, while the steers were grain 
fed as "long yearlings," weighing, at 23 months, 
1,200 pounds each, and bringing $6.10 on the 
market, or 15 cents below top prices for heavy 
cattle. 

At the Nebraska Experiment Station a Short- 
horn-Jersey cow which produced 375 pounds of 
butter per year for five years, when bred to a pure- 
bred Hereford bull gave birth to a calf which 
weighed 1,300 pounds at 22 months of age, fairly 
good in type, though peaked behind. The following 
year from an Angus bull the cow produced a calf 



140 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

which weighed 1,200 at 21 months of age, better in 
type than the Hereford; and a year later from a 
Shorthorn sire, a calf weighing 1,250 at 21 months, 
equal in quality to the Angus, both being broad 
behind and fairly well covered, though less thickly 
than high grade steers of the beef breeds — good 
enough, however, to sell near the top of the market. 

Calves from Jersey cows bred to beef bulls are 
less satisfactory for beef production than are those 
from other dairy breeds. Such cows are small in 
size, less robust in constitution, and it is quite im- 
possible to produce anything but peaked hind quar- 
ters, 'so objectionable to the feeder. If the Jersey 
cow has considerable blood of another breed the 
calves are likely to be better for beef purposes. It 
is not unusual for grade Shorthorn cows of dairy 
conformation to give twenty quarts of milk per day. 
Such coAvs are excellent for producing beef calves, 
when bred to blocky, thick-fleshed bulls. The Hol- 
stein cow is. our heaviest milker. She is also large 
in scale, strong in constitution, and active in assimi- 
lative powers. When pure she is unusually persis- 
tent in transmitting her own characters to ofif- 
spring. A grade Holstein cow, however, bred to 
a beefy bull, usually produces a fairly good feeding 
animal, though later maturing and coarser than the 
Shorthorn. It was a common Shorthorn-Holstein 
grade cow, bred to an extraordinary pure-bred 
Hereford bull, which produced Challenger, the In- 
ternational Champion steer for 1903. While this is 
more than should be expected from such a cow, it 
could hardly be called accidental on her part, since 
she produced the following year another calf from 
the same bull, which won second place in a strong 
class of grade steers at the International show. 

The Iowa Experiment Station, in making a sum- 
mary of results as published in Bulletin 48, issued 



BEEF TYPE. I4I 

in 1900, says concerning the combining of dairying 
and beef making: 

"i. From the results so far obtained through 
these trials it -is evident that a system whereby 
dairying and meat making may be combined is the 
most promising ia profits. Not only do the steers 
from cows bred with this combination in view yield 
as much profit as those from the range, but the 
cows when used for dairy purposes make profitable 
returns. 

"2. The data secured through the actual work of 
establishing a herd of this kind and the actual test of 
the cows in the dairy and steers in the feed-lot show 
that it is not only possible to combine these qualities 
to a profitable degree, but also to perpetuate them if 
the herd is bred especially for them. 

"3. In the commercial production of beef 
through a combination of dairying and beef mak- 
ing it is necessary that the calves are removed from 
their dams when two or three da}s old so as to develop 
and preserve the milking qualities of the cows." 



Angus bull — "Bugler." Showing extreme development of masculine 
character. Very blocky. and useful for producing beef calves 
from dairy cows. University of Nebraska. 



142 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 




CHAPTER XII. 

SHELTER AND FEED-LOT FACILITIES FOR 
BEEF CATTLE. 

The shelter problem in cattle feeding is of im- 
portance, since it influences materially the cost 
of producing beef. When it is understood that the 
temperature of the animal body under normal con- 
ditions is 98° Fahrenheit, it is apparent that a con- 
siderable part of the day's ration must go to pro- 
duce heat, much of which is constantly leaving the 
body by radiation from tiie surface. This loss is 
most rapid when the temperature of the air is con- 
siderably below the normal temperature of the 
body. On cold winter days, for example, when 
the body is fully exposed, the loss is very great, 
and there is in consequence a heavier draft upon 
the food for fuel purposes. Cattle are endowed 
by nature with a thick skin and a good coat of 
hair to check this loss of heat by radiation, and this 
protection during moderate weather is sufficient. 
Then, too, after having been fed for beef for some 
time cattle have more or less fat distributed over the 
body just underneath the skin, and this gives addi- 
tional protection. Such cattle generate more or less 
heat as a by-product, as it were, during the rapid as- 
similation of food, which serves to warm the body, 
more especially when the ration is highly carbonaceous. 
Because of this fact, if fattening cattle are confined 
in closed barns, as is sometimes practiced — particu- 
larly in Eastern States — they are likely to be un- 
comfortably warm — too warm for a good appetite 
and large gains. On the other hand, the. Western 

'43 



144 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

practice of feeding cattle outdoors, unprotected in 
any way, requires the consumption of considerable 
food solely for the purpose of heat lost by ex- 
cessive radiation, which food is far more costly 
than shelter. 

The Missouri Shelter Tests. — The Missouri Ex- 
periment Station during several successive winters 
conducted tests to determine the influence of shel- 
ter upon gains. Each winter two-year-old steers 
were divided into three lots ; one was provided with 
a closed but well-ventilated barn, another with a 
shed closed on all sides except the south, and 
a third with an open yard, a tight fence being the 
only protection. These cattle were all cared for in 
exactly the same way, each lot being given a ration 
consisting of corn and timothy hay and those in the 
barn allowed the run of a yard on pleasant days. The 
average results for each steer in the several lots were 
as follows : the average daily gain per steer in the 
closed barn was 1.7 pounds, in the shed 1.92 pounds, 
and in the open yard 2.05 pounds. The barn steers 
consumed 10.6 pounds of corn for each pound of gain, 
the shed steers 10.4 pounds, and the open yard steers 
9.98 pounds. Combining both hay and grain, the barn 
steers consumed 14.79 pounds of feed for one pound 
of gain, the shed steers 14.12 pounds, and the open 
vard steers 14.22 pounds. The results show in favor 
of the shed and open yard steers as compared with 
the steers fed in the barn. The difference in favor 
of the shed steers in this series of experiments is hardly 
great enough to pay for building sheds. Had the ration 
been a balanced one instead of being excessively^ 
starchy, the result would undoubtedly have been 
still more favorable for the use of the shed as com- 
pared with the open yard. Corn and timothy hay 
were used, because that combination is one common- 
ly fed in Missouri. Director ^Vaters, the experi- 



SHELTER FACILITIES FOR BEEF CATTLE. I45 

menter, says : "While the difference between the 
gains of the bunches in the open shed and the open 
lot do not indicate a large advantage in favor of 
the open shed, ye"t from every point of view it 
seems fair to say that where much winter feeding 
is to be done it will be profitable to provide suit- 
able shelter for the cattle, the feed and the manure, 
and particularly to give the cattle a dry place on 
which to lie. From these experiments it does not 
appear to be necessary or profitable to attempt to 
make such quarters warm." In a Kansas test lo per 
cent of the feed was saved by providing an open shed. 
The Pennsylvania experiments also show in favor of 
shelter. As a result of several thousand letters of in- 
quiry sent out by the Missouri Experiment Station 
to cattle feeders in Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and 
Nebraska, it was found that 17.6 per cent of those re- 
sponding favored the closed barn, 59.2 per cent the 
open shed and 23.2 per cent the open lot. From the 
investigations in Missouri and other States it is ap- 
parent that there is danger of overhousing as well as 
underhousing fattening cattle. Such cattle are not 
likely to be uncomfortable, even during cold 
weather, so long as they are protected from cold 
winds and have a dry bed. The latter is more 
necessary than is ordinarily supposed and a roof 
is no doubt worth more than its cost for this pur- 
pose. It would seem that in the Northern States 
especially, some sort of a shed open on the side 
opposite prevailing winds is most satisfactory for 
fattening cattle. 

Shelter for Stock Cattle. — For stock cattle the sit- 
uation is different. They are not crowded with 
grain and do not have so much fat for protection. A 
small animal also presents a larger surface in propor- 
tion to weight than does a larger one, making the loss 
of heat from radiation relatively greater. The Mis- 



146 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

souri Experiment Station carried on shelter tests with 
stock cattle as well as fattening cattle. In com- 
menting upon the results of the test with light 
cattle in contrast with fattening cattle, Director 
Waters says : "We have carried on this experi- 
ment for four years with yearlings, one winter 
feeding them on hay only and three winters on a 
small quantity of corn and what timothy hay they 
would eat. The result was altogether the other 
way. The bunch in the barn came out in the 
best condition by far, with a better coat, etc. It would 
be the same way with any other class of cattle if 
due care is taken not to overhouse and to keep their 
c[uarters well ventilated." Young cattle, especially 
when fed largely upon hay, need shelter closed on all 
sides, with enough open doors on one side to permit 
them to pass in and out at will. There should be 
enough openings to give good ventilation at all times. 

Location of the Feed-lot. — In choosing a loca- 
tion for the feed-lot, attention should be given to 
drainage and natural protection. Whenever possi- 
ble, the yard should be situated on a south slope, so 
that water will drain of¥ quickly after a rain and the 
ground will receive the full benefit of the sun's 
rays. Muddy yards are not conducive to good 
gains. This is a matter of common observation 
among feeders during winters when there is con- 
siderable rainfall. Experiment station records also 
show that monthly gains made when yards are 
muddy are considerably below the monthly gaiias 
made when yards are dry. In some cases the soil is 
sufificiently open to permit the rapid percolation of 
water downward, while in other localities the soil is 
so nearly impervious that pools form at the surface, 
or the water mixes with the dlay to make a most dis- 
agreeable mud. At the Illinois Station, where such 



SHELTER FACILITIES FOR BEEF CATTLE. I47 

a condition exists, paving was found to be entirely 
practicable. 

Bedding, wbether in barn or lots, should be used 
liberally, because it not only adds materially to the 
comfort of the animals, but it actually saves feed. 
One who has scattered a load of straw in a bare 
feed-lot will vouch for the statement that cattle are 
quick to lie down and rest when encouraged to do 
so. A condition of mud or frozen clods in the 
yards is greatly improved by using straw liberally. 
If it is thrown in one place, that spot becomes ele- 
vated and furnishes a dry and comfortable bed. 
A well-fed steer lying contentedly upon his side is 
making the best possible use of the feed in his 
stomach. He will not lie down in mud and filth 
until forced by exhaustion to do so. Standing or 
walking means an unnecessary muscular exertion, 
which requires food. Fattening cattle should be 
kept as quiet as possible. No better use can be 
made of wheat straw or refuse hay and stalks than 
to scatter them about for bedding, where such ma- 
terial will also serve as an absorbent of liquid 
manure. 

Salt should be given regularly to all kinds of cat- 
tle. To make sure that enough is supplied to meet 
physiological requirements it is advisable to keep it 
before them at all times. A box of salt may be nailed 
to the side of the fence where cattle will have free 
access to it, or, better still, underneath the shed, 
where it will keep dry. When supplied in this way 
cattle will not eat more than is good for them, unless 
the box is allowedio become empty for a time. If 
cattle become hungry for salt, they are greedy and 
eat so much that the tissues are made dry, owing 
to the strong affinity of salt for water; this causes 
such intense thirst that water in excess is imbibed 
to the detriment of digestion and assimilation. 



148 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Ground rock or common pulverized salt is prefer- 
able to rock salt, though the latter is preferred 
by some for cattle on pasture, because it is not 
dissiolved by rains. The chief objection to the 
latter is that cattle are required to spend too much 
time licking the rock, which time would be better 
spent eating grass. Another objection to rock salt 
is that its rough surface may cause the tongue to 
become sore. For summer feeding, a box of com- 
mon salt kept underneath a swinging cover or a 
roof built at some central point in the pasture is 
most satisfactory, although regular salting once a 
week is not a bad practice, inasmuch as cattle on 
grass without grain are sometimes left unobserved 
for long periods, when they should be counted and 
otherwise inspected at frequent intervals. 

Pure water should be made accessible to cattle 
both winter and summer. The system calls for water 
to serve in the elaboration of animal compounds and 
to transport these compounds from place to place in 
the body. Tissues must always be kept moist. A 
large quantity of water leaves the animal with the 
breath and must be replaced. The water always 
present in foodstuffs is not sufficient to meet de- 
mands, and more must be supplied from outside 
sources. Animals never drink too much water under 
normal conditions. They will not drink enough for 
best gains if the water is in any way offensive, hence 
the importance of pure water. In cold weather cattle 
do not, as a rule, drink enough, because of the chill- 
ing effects of ice cold water. This is especially true 
with stock eattle and dairy cows. The milch cow. 
as already mentioned, must be given every possible 
inducement to drink freely, because in the elabora- 
tion of milk compounds more water is needed than 
in the elaboration of meat compounds. The tank 



SHELTER FACILITIES FOR BEEF CATTLE. 



149 



heaters described for dairy cows are also useful 
for steers during" freezing weather. 

Dipping for lice, mange, etc., is preferably done 
when cattle first go into the feed-lot, if done at all, 
because a lighter shrinkage follows. In localities 
where such troubles are common, it is wise to em- 
ploy this safeguard. With a good dipping plant 
the process can be made a short one and any of th(? 
approved dipping solutions, whether the sulphur- 
lime or coal tar preparations, may be purchased at 
a small cost. 





^^^fc_i^^||. - 1^''' jb"' 


fl^^E^S^^W?' 



A pair of good backs — "Challenger 11" and "Stanton," University 
of Nebraska. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

BABY BEEF. 

In discussing- the details of feeding for beef it is 
taken for granted that the reader has gone over the 
chapters on general principles in feeding all classes 
of live stock and those chapters on feeding the dairy 
cow. Feeding the cow logically precedes feeding 
the steer, and whatever was said concerning foods 
for the dairy cow applies in a general way to beef 
cattle, and should first be given consideration by 
the reader. 

In feeding for beef, the system to be practiced 
will depend upon the locality, and to some extent 
upon the season. In some sections the soil and 
climate are especially favorable for the production 
of grass and hay, but less so for corn, making the 
latter high in price ; or feeding for pork may be 
carried on so extensively in some localities as to 
make grain in demand at strong prices and rough- 
ness a drug on the market. In other sections 
grain may be reasonably low and rough feed high 
in price. The season is a factor in any locality in 
so far as it affects prices on foodstuffs from year to 
year, necessitating the exercise of business sagacity 
in the use of those foodstuffs which go the farthest 
for the money. 

Feeding for beef resolves itself into two general 
methods : the production of early fattened beef, which 
is called "baby beef" when carried to the extreme, and 
the production of older beef by a larger use of rough- 
ness and a more gradual process of grain feeding. 

Arguments for Baby Beef. — On those farms 
ISO 



BABY BEEF. I5I 

where roughness can be profitably used in other 
ways, the production of early beef has two distinct 
advantages. 

I. Young stock require less food for a given 
gain than older stock. Records show that for each 
succeeding year up to the age of three or four years 
nearly 50 per cent more food is required for a given 
increase in weight than was required the year previous. 
Much of this difference is no doubt due to the fact 
that as the steer grows older and larger, he also be- 
comes heavier in flesh, which always means smaller 
gains from a given weight of food. At the Illinois 
Experiment Station in 1904 one car-load each of 
range-bred calves, yearlings and two-year-olds was 
purchased from Wyoming. None having been ac- 
customed to grain, they were therefore uniformly 
thin in flesh. Each lot was given the same kind 
of food, viz., corn which had been run through an 
ensilage cutter, cotton-seed meal, alfalfa hay and 
some oat straw and shredded corn stover. De- 
ducting the pork produced, the net cost of pro- 
ducing 100 pounds of gain on the calves was $4.10, 
on the yearlings $5.60 and on the two-year-olds 
$6.60. This means that the cost of producing gains 
was 37 per cent more on yearlings than on calves, 
and 18 per cent more on two-year-olds than 
on yearlings. The calves weighed at the begin- 
ning 384 pounds, the yearlings 784 pounds and the 
two-year-olds 1,032 pounds each. That young ani- 
mals make better use of food seems entirely rea- 
sonable in view of the fact that nearly half of a full 
feed is required for maintaining a constant weight. 
The larger the animal the more food is required to 
keep up body heat, replace worn out tissues, force 
the blood to circulate and do other necessary work ; 
and a smaller proportion is therefore converted into 
flesh and fat. 



152 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

II. The same capital invested in young stock 
produces more beef than in older stock. The man 
who produces his own feeders also realizes his 
profits sooner in baby beef than in older beef. The 
existing conditions favorable to early feeding are (i) 
the availability of low-down, blocky types of cattle 
which respond well to early heavy feeding, putting on 
fat and flesh rapidly without a large development of 
bone ; and (2) the status of the present day market, 
which pays practically as much for small cattle of high 
finish as for the larger 1400-pound cattle more com- 
mon in former days. 

Whole Milk Calves Best for Making Early Baby 
Beef. — For the production of early baby beef, calves 
which have been allowed plenty of whole milk fresh 
from the cow are most suitable, because they are in 
better flesh at weaning time. Such calves should be 
fed grain just as soon as they can be encouraged to 
eat. A mixture consisting of equal parts of whole 
oats, bran and shelled corn is very satisfactory for 
young calves receiving milk. Whole grain is ordi- 
narily more attractive to calves than ground grain, 
because the, whole grain is always fresh, while the 
ground grain is sometimes tainted from exposure to 
the air. Shelled corn is brittle and easily cracked by 
young calves. Probably no grain is more relished by 
them, regardless of the fact that it is too starchy for 
their good when fed alone. Bran, rich in protein, off- 
sets the starchy corn and with oats satisfies the 
craving for something bulky, needed to properly 
develop the ruminating powers. Bran is also an 
excellent bowel regulator, useful in connection with 
a whole milk diet. Oats tend to check scours in all 
animals. No single food is better to supplement milk 
for growing calves than whole oats, but the mixture 
of the three foods is more satisfactory. If bran is not 
available, one-half the same quantity of oil-meal or 



BABY BEEF. 153 

g-luten meal could be used instead. Grain feeding be- 
fore weaning not only saves milk, but, more than 
that, it lessens the shrinkage which is likely to fol- 
low weaning. By full feeding on grain at weaning 
time, very little shrinkage is occasioned when the 
milk is withdrawn entirely. 

Feed After Weaning. — The secret of feeding 
after weaning is to hold the milk tlesh and keep the 
calf nutting more on top. At this age it is natural for 
a calf to develop frame. If flesh '^nd fat are to keep 
pace with this bone development, heavy grain feeding 
is the only recourse. All the grain the calf can be 
made to consume without taking the edge off his appe- 
tite is the best guide to follow. This is where skill 
an(J watchfulness are rewarded. At this stage the calf 
should have about one-half corn, one-fourth oats and 
one-fourth bran. \\^ith spring calves a late summer 
pasture of blue-grass will furnish any protein lacking 
in the grain ration. If no blue-grass pasture is avail- 
able and the calves are stable-fed, the roughness 
should consist very largely of clover or alfalfa, 
since both of these plants are rich in protein and 
are relished by calves. 

Feed During the First Winter. — In producing 
baby beef there should be no cessation of heavy grain 
feeding. The first winter, corn should be increased 
to form at least 60 per cent of the grain ration. If 
oats are high in price, as they usually are in com- 
parison with corn, it is better economy to feed 
three-quarters corn and one-quarter bran, or, if 
bran is high, seven-eighths corn and one-eighth oil 
meal. Should the roughness consist in part of corn 
stover, timothy or prairie hay, somewhat less corn 
and a little more bran or oil meal should be used, 
since such forms of roughness, are, like corn, too 
starchy. In the absence of clover, alfalfa, or cow- 
pea hay, 20 per cent of oil meal could be used. All 



154 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

the rough feed such beeves will take should be sup- 
plied. With the close of winter, at the age of 12 
months, a calf under such treatment should weigh 
from 800 to 1,000 pounds and be fat enough to 
market. 

Finishing Baby Beeves on Grass. — It is often 
more profitable to full feed on grass until about July 
I, since cheap gains can be secured during the summer 
with corn on grass, and somewhat less grain would be 
required the previous winter. If some feed like oil 
meal, cottonseed meal or gluten feed can be had at a 
reasonable price, it could profitably form 10 per cent 
of the grain ration, and if the pasture is timothy or 
prairie grass, 15 to 20 per cent would be needed. 
Baby beeves 14 to 18 months old, weighing from 
900 to 1,200 pounds, are more profitably handled 
by packers than are heavy cattle in summer, and 
are therefore in greater demand at that season. 

Skim Milk Calves for Baby Beef. — Skim milk 
calves are as a rule larger in frame, carrying less 
flesh at weaning time than the calf well nourished 
on whole milk. It is for this reason that skim milk 
calves can seldom be finished for baby beef before 
the age of sixteen or eighteen months has been 
reached. This, of course, depends largey upon the 
skill displayed in raising the calves. The condi- 
tion of flesh at an early age is also very largely gov- 
erned by the type of the animal, those on the short- 
legged, blocky order ripening much more quickly 
than the leggy kind. 

Heifer calves may be profitably made into baby 
beef for several reasons, (i) Heifer calves natu- 
rally take on flesh more rapi41y than steer calves 
under like conditions. (2) They are not likely to 
be with calf at this early age, for which reason 
buyers are willing to pay as much per pound for a 
fat heifer under 18 months as for a steer of the same 



BABY BEEF. 



155 



quality and condition. (3) After a certain age is 
reached, usually about twelve months, heifers 
come in heat at intervals of 21 days. This period 
of heat lasts about two days, during which time not 
only the one individual loses in weight, but others 
in the herd are more or less excited and lose there- 
by. This loss can only be overcome by watching 
the herd and by separating each animal that comes 
in heat — which, of course, involves labor — or by 
spaying all females. Spaying heifers is a much 
more difficult operation than castrating male calves, 
resulting in some shrinkage and not infrequently 
in the death of the animal. Feeding for baby beef 
is the best solution of the heifer problem. The 
prices on young "she stufif" at our Western markets 
are often such as to make the feeding of that class 
more profitable than steer feeding. 




Angus Baby Beeves fed by the Illinois Experiment Station. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

FEEDING YEARLING STEERS FOR BEEF. 

In the preceding chapter on "baby beef," the ad- 
vantages of early fattening were pointed out. But 
this method also has its limitations and its disad- 
vantages under certain conditions. Where beef 
raising is not carried on in connection with dairy 
farming, the cost of keeping the cow one year is 
charged to the calf she brings up. In other words, 
the calf, in starting upon its career of beef produc- 
tion, has hanging over it a debt for its creation. If 
the calf is sold at the age of twelve months, this 
sum, which may be only $12, is charged to one 
year's growth ; if sold at the age of 24 months it 
is distributed over two years' growth, making it 
$6 for each year. The feeder market gives recog- 
nition of this fact by quoting calves about 25 per 
cent higher per pound than yearlings of equal qual- 
ity. Owing to the birth cost of an animal it is not 
always profitable to cut off its life too early. 

Then, too, in the production of baby beef, heavy 
grain feeding is resorted to from start to finish. 
In converting any concentrated feed, as grain, 
into meat, the pig is a much more economical pro- 
ducer than the steer. For example, up to 200 
pounds in weight, a pig will consume during life 
an average of about four pounds of grain for each 
pound of increase in weight. In the production of 
baby beef marketed at the age of 16 months, there 
will be required nearly five pounds of grain and 
some roughness for each pound of increase. 

The ruminants — cattle and sheep — with their four 
156 



FEEDING YEARLING STEERS. I 57 

Stomachs, are naturally consumers of roughness, in 
the large use of which the pig is handicapped and 
can not compete. There is grown on every farm 
considerable roughness in the shape of cornstalks, 
hay and the like, which would command but a very 
lovvT figure if placed on the open market. It is for 
the utilization of this cheap roughness that the 
steer has a place. Only in the cow or sheep has he 
a substitute for this work. When such animals are 
not present in sufficient number to consume all 
roughness, then it is better economy to feed the 
steer more of such feed and correspondingly less 
grain, even though more time is required to get 
him on the market. This has been especially true 
during recent years, when corn has been high in 
price. \\'ith modern types of cattle, which natur- 
ally mature earlier than formerly, it is not neces- 
sary to extend the feeding period beyond the age 
of 24 months, even with a liberal feeding of rough- 
ness during the first year. 

Amount of Grain the First Winter. — Just how 
much the grain ration may be profitably reduced 
the first winter is not definitely known. During two 
winters experiments have been carried on at the 
Nebraska Experiment Station to throw some light 
on the relative economy of hay with and without 
grain for calves. During the winter of igoi-'o2 
Angus calves, weighing 500 pounds each, were 
divided into two lots, one lot fed hay without 
grain, the other fed four pounds of mixed grain 
per day. In both lots the hay was largely alfalfa 
of good quality, with just enough prairie hay to 
prevent scours. An average monthly gain of 33 
pounds was secured on hay alone. The grain lot 
made an average gain of 60 pounds per month. 
With good hay, then worth $8 per ton, it was found 
that each 100 pounds of gain with grain cost but 



158 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

$4.60, while without grain the same gain cost $6. 
This was a large saving in favor of Hght grain 
feeding during the first winter in comparison with 
no grain. The following summer, however, when 
both lots were placed in the same pasture, without 
grain, the steers previously given no grain made a 
gain of 10 pounds per month more than the winter 
grain fed calves. The latter, however, were enough 
better in quality to. make this light grain feeding 
during the winter about 15 per cent less costly than 
without grain for the whole year. 

The following winter fifty Hereford steer calves 
were divided into three lots. One lot was fed hay 
alone, one hay and three pounds of grain daily, and 
the third hay and six pounds of grain daily. At 
this time alfalfa and prairie hay were each 
worth $6 per ton. The gain of those having no 
grain with hay cost $7 per hundred pounds, while 
the gain of those having three pounds of grain cost 
$4.95 per hundred, and those having six pounds of 
grain cost $4.35. By the end of the year, all 
having been summer pastured, without grain, at 
a cost of $4 per steer, the lot having three pounds 
of grain the previous winter made gains at a cost 
of $3.14 per hundred, while the lot receiving no 
grain made gains at a cost of $3.17, and the lot re- 
ceiving six pounds, $3.46 per hundred. No doubt 
the "no grain" calves consumed more grass, which 
would put them at a somewhat greater disadvan- 
tage than the figures denote. The records from 
these experiments, then, would indicate that, for 
the first year's feeding, a light grain ration during 
the winter with good roughness is more econom- 
ical, when no grain is fed the following summer, 
than either no grain, or a grain ration as high as 
six pounds per day. 

Character of the Ration. — The successful utiliza- 



FEEDING YEARLING STEERS, 




l60 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

tion of a large quantity of roughness during the 
iirst winter's feeding depends very largely on the 
kind supplied and its quality. Well cured alfalfa, 
clover and cowpea hay are best, because any of 
these, with corn, makes a fairly well balanced ration 
for calves ; though a ration with so large a quan- 
tity of alfalfa contains really more protein than is 
necessary, and something like cornstalks, oat straw 
or cane, fed in small quantity with it, cheapens the 
ration and at the same time lessens its tendency to 
produce scours. Should the roughness consist en- 
tirely of timothy hay, prairie hay, cornstalks, sor- 
ghum, millet or straw, then it will be necessary to 
feed about three-fourths corn to one-fourth linseed 
or gluten meal. If bran is used it should form 
about half the grain ration with corn. Oats are not 
especially rich in protein, but when the price per- 
mits are a very useful adjunct to corn. Corn silage 
is excellent for wintering calves, if a little supple- 
mentary protein is supplied. Being succulent, it 
makes young cattle sappy and well prepared for 
future growth. 

Tabulated Rations for Calves. — Following is a 
table showing the nutrients in each of two rations 
recommended for a 500-pound calf which is to be 
fattened as a yearling the following winter: 

Dry Carto- Nutritive 

matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. 

Eed clover, 12 lbs 10.1 .82 4.29 .20. 

Corn, 3 lbs 2.6 .24 2.00 .13 

Total 12.7 1.06 6.29 .33 1:6.6 

Alfalfa, 7 lbs 6.4 .77 2.77 .09 

Corn stover, 6 lbs 3.6 .10 1.94 .04 

Corn, 3 lbs 2.6 .24 2.00 .13 

Total 12.6 1,11 6.71 .26 1:6.6 



FEEDING YEARLING STEERS. l6l 

Fall and Winter Feeding. — With good grass pas- 
ture, without grain, following a winter's feed con- 
sisting of roughness with three or four pounds of 
grain fed to each calf daily, a gain of 40 to 50 
pounds per month may be expected during the en- 
tire year, and sufficient flesh will be put on to make 
practicable the second winter's heavy grain feeding. 
Yearling steers may be left on pasture as long as 
they have an abundance of feed and the weather is 
not too cold. In the more Northern States it is 
usually found advisable to remove from pasture 
field to feed-lot late in October or some time in 
November, unless provision is made for feeding 
some grain in the field. Yearling steers are less able 
to stand exposure to cold winds than are two-year-olds, 
for which reason they should go to the feed-lot fairly 
early. Not having been fed grain during the sum- 
mer, feeding should begin by making the ration very 
largely roughage, alfalfa, clover or cowpea hay pre- 
dominating, with either cornstalks, sorghum, prairie 
hay or oat straw to furnish variety and at the same 
time to act as a preventi\e of scours, which is not 
uncommon when alfalfa is fed in large quantity. 

About three pounds of grain per steer the first day 
is quite enough. There are usually some steers which 
do not eat grain the first day. and if more than this is 
supplied the others get too much. This amount may 
be increased one pound every other day until an allow- 
ance of nine pounds has been reached, when the further 
increase should be somewhat more gradual, say at the 
rate of not more than two pounds per week. With 
fifteen pounds per day at the end of the fifth w^eek, 
the steers will be eating about all the grain they will 
care for, so long as good roughage is supplied in 
abundance. It is not practicable to w^eigh roughage 
for cattle. They shoidd receive all they will con- 
sume without excessive waste. Coarse stems con- 



1 62 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

tain but little nourishment, and cattle can hardly 
be expected to eat them. It is not economy to force 
cattle to clean out the racks containing rough feed 
so completely that they will consume less of such 
feed than they otherwise would, and therefore de- 
mand more grain. In no case let the change from 
grass to heavy grain feeding be made too sud- 
denly. The system must be given time to adapt 
itself to the new conditions ; if not, digestive dis- 
orders may result, and this means no little sacri- 
fice to profits. Five weeks for this change is none too 
much time. 

Character of Rations. — A yearling steer weighing, 
January i, from 800 to 900 pounds, supplied with 15 
pounds of grain per day, will consume something like 
8 pounds of hay. If this is alfalfa or cowpea hay, 
the grain, at average Western prices, for most profit- 
able gains should be corn- alone, at least so far as 
investigations to date indicate. For most perfect 
digestion either shelled corn or corn meal is rather 
heavy. This compactness which prevents a ready 
admixture of digestive juices in the stomach is 
easily overcome by grinding cob and corn together, 
or by feeding crushed or broken husked or snapped 
corn, the latter name designating ear corn within 
the husk. When corn, cob and husk are passed to 
the stomach ground together in a mass, we have 
a mixture easily penetrated by the gastric juice and 
other digestive fluids and entirely safe for forced 
methods of feeding. Corn without cob is some- 
times made more bulky by mixing it with bran 
or cut hay, but usually at greater expense than with 
ground cob. With clover, however, bran is entirely 
practicable, inasmuch as a little more protein is then 
desirable, though if corn and cob meal is easily 
obtained, the extra protein is often more cheaply 
furnished in linseed, gluten or cottonseed meal. 



FEEDING YEARLING STEERS. I63 

Without Legumes for Roughage Protein Concen- 
trates Are Needed. — In feeding timothy or prairie 
hay, cane or any roughage of which one of the legumes 
— clover, alfalfa or cowpea hay — is not made a part, 
it is decidedly advantageous to use a protein concen- 
trate with corn, more so with yearling steers than with 
older cattle. From what has been said concerning the 
lack of protein, or flesh-making material, in corn and 
all hay plants except the legumes, it is at once ap- 
parent that a protein concentrate is needed. In a test 
at the Nebraska Station in 1904, yearling steers on 
corn and alfalfa made an average gain of 1.97 pounds 
per day during a six months' feeding period, while 
a lot on corn and prairie hay gained but 1.35 pounds 
per day. Thirty-six per cent more feed was re- 
quired for each pound of gain on corn and prairie 
hay than was required on corn and- alfalfa, and, as 
the market price on both kinds of hay was the same, 
the cost of producing gains was correspondingly 
higher on corn and prairie hay. The net profit on 
corn and prairie hay was 38 cents per steer for the 
six months' feeding, while those in the alfalfa lot 
each returned a net profit of $8.66. 

In another lot. where the roughage consisted of 
prairie hay and the grain ration was 90 per cent 
corn and 10 per cent oil meal, the average daily gain 
was 1. 91 pounds as compared with 1.35 pounds 
without oil meal. In this case 33 per cent more 
feed was required for each pound of gain when the 
oilmeal was left out of the ration. With prairie hay 
worth $6 per ton, corn 60 cents per hundred (33 
cents per bushel) and oil meal $1.25 per hundred, 
each pound of gain without oil meal cost 21 per 
cent more than with oil meal, and each steer in this 
lot returned a net profit of $4.76 as compared with 
$.38 without oil meal. Where the oil meal was 
added the steers could be induced to take mere feed. 



164 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

which, no doubt, partially accounted for their more 
economical gains. The nutritive ratio of the oil meal 
ration was i pound of nitrogenous material to 8 
pounds of the non-nitrogenous, while the nutritive 
ratio of the poorly balanced ration, consisting of 
corn and prairie hay without oil meal, was i : 10.4 — 
yet the latter ration is one very largely used in the 
West. 

In a ration consisting of corn, 90 per cent; oil 
meal, 10 per cent; and corn stover (stalks without 
ears), in which the nutritive ratio was 1:8, the daily 
gain was 1.96 pounds per steer, and the cost of pro- 
ducing gains just as cheap as on corn and alfalfa. 
This ration produced 9 per cent larger gains for the 
same weight of food consumed than were made on 
corn, 90 per cent ; oil meal, 10 per cent ; and sor- 
ghum hay, a ration in which the nutritive ratio was 
approximately i -.g. 

The 50 steers in the experiment described were 
finished for market at the age of 24 months, aver- 
aging 1,120 pounds each, when they sold for as 
much per pound as older cattle of the same qual- 
ity. These steers consumed during the first winter, 
as calves, an average of 2.9 pounds of grain each 
per day, and during the second winter, on full feed, 
15.6 pounds each per day. For each pound of live 
weight at the time the steers were sold, they had 
consumed during both years an average of three 
pounds of grain and the same weight of hay. This, 
of course, does not include the milk and grass pas- 
ture received as calves, nor a second summer's pas- 
ture as yearlings. It confirms what has been said, 
that finishing "long yearlings" permits a larger use 
of roughage, requiring less grain per pound of beef 
than is required in the production of "baby beef." 



CHAPTER XV. 

FATTENING STEERS WITH GRAIN ON 
PASTURE. 

Finishing Two-Year-Old Steers With Grain on 
Grass. — In feeding out yearlings for a spring mar- 
ket, as just described, while the grain feeding is 
light the first winter, one is compelled to use grain 
very liberally all the second winter, in order to se- 
cure a marketable finish by May, and if the cattle 
are inclined to be a little rangy in type, it is frequent- 
ly necessary to feed into June. Early June is often 
fairly cool in the Northern States, and the markets 
at this season for the lighter weights, like yearlings, 
are usually good ; but later in the month hot 
weather becomes oppressive for fat cattle and flies 
begin to be troublesome, making it difficult to se- 
cure a reasonable gain. \\'ith a good pasture field 
on the farm, it is possible to save grain by feeding 
sparingly during the second winter as w^ell as the 
first, finishing on grass the following summer. 
Some use no grain the early part of the second win- 
ter. At the New Mexico Station yearling steers 
gained 1.36 pounds per day on alfalfa alone, and at 
Arizona 1.5 pounds per day. 

In localities where corn is relatively high in price, 
and hay and grass are abundant, finishing steers on 
grass is often profitable. Cattle fed on grass re- 
quire less grain for a given increase in weight than 
when winter-fed on hay and grain. The nutritious 
and palatable grass seems to take the place of grain 
to a limited extent. There are two ways of feeding 

165 



l66 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

grain on grass : one is spring and early summer, 
the other late fall and early winter feeding. 

Feeding Grain on Grass in Early Summer. — As- 
suming that the steers have had a fairly liberal 
supply of grain the previous winter — perhaps half a 
full-feed or more — it is better to continue the grain 
on grass, supplying all- they will take and market- 
irig as soon as ready, which will probably be some 
time in July. Great care should be exercised in mak- 
ing the change from dry hay to green grass. If it 
is sudden there is sure to be a shrinkage. Cattle 
are prone to fill up on grass if given the first op- 
portunity, which brings on scours, often flushing 
out the system to such an extent that it means the 
loss of a month's growth. It is not likely to hap- 
pen if the change is made gradually. There are 
two ways of doing this. One is to turn the cattle 
on grass for but ^ short time at first, lengthening 
the period a little each day. The other is to allow 
the cattle the run of the pasture just as soon as the 
first blades appear in the spring. They are then 
able to get but very little grass at first, but more 
each day thereafter as the grass grows larger. 
There are two disadvantages, however, with this 
method of feeding. First, in early spring the sod is 
likely to be soft, becoming badly trampled if cattle 
are allowed to run upon it. This makes it neces- 
sary for cattle to be shut off for a few days in case 
of heavy rain, and they will eat too much grass 
when turned on again afterward. The second dis- 
advantage is that early pasturing does not permit so 
large a yield of grass, because it has no chance to 
make a start. A large blade can elaborate much 
more food from air and soil than one kept small by 
a continuous cropping off; for this reason a larger 
yield of grass can be had by keeping stock off the 
field until it is well started. Therefore, although it 



GRAIN ON PASTURE. l6^ 

involves more labor, it is probably better to keep 
the cattle off pasture until the grass has a few 
weeks' growth, turning on for an hour the first day, 
increasing the length of time each succeeding day 
until the cattle remain permanently in the pasture. 
By this method they get grass very gradually, and 
do not shrink in consequence. Besides being a 
safe met-hod. this is also a practical one when there 
are many in tlie herd. 

Character of the Grain Ration on Grass. — On 
a pasture containing an abundance of clover the 
grain ma}' consist entirely of corn, the clover sup- 
plying sufficient protein to make up what is lack- 
ing in corn. Alfalfa would do the same, though 
it has been found unsafe to pasture clear alfalfa be- 
cause of bloat. If timothy, brome-grass or some 
other grass is mixed with alfalfa this difficulty may 
be overcome. It was recently found at the Ne- 
braska Experiment Station that steers pastured on 
mixed grasses, consisting of blue-grass, brome- 
grass, meadow fescue, prairie grass and a little al- 
falfa made better gains when fed oil meal with corn 
than when fed corn alone. During a summer period 
of 30 weeks five two-year-old Angus steers were 
fed an average of 17.8 pounds of shelled corn each 
per day, making an average daily gain of 1.63 
pounds. Another lot of five steers of the same 
kind were each fed 17.8 pounds of grain per day, 
consisting of 90 per cent shelled corn and 10 per 
cent oil meal. These steers made an average gain 
of 2.02 pounds per day during the same time. The 
pasture was alike in both lots. Those fed corn and 
oil meal required but 8.8 pounds of grain for one 
pound of increase in weight, while those fed corn 
alone required 10.9 pounds. With pasture worth $3 
per acre, corn worth at that time 33 cents per 
bushel, and oil meal $25 per ton, each 100 pounds 



i68 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 





Grade Angus steers used in the Nebraska Experiment. "Corn vs. 
corn and oil meal on grass." 



GRAIN ON PASTURE. l6q 

of gain on corn alone cost 13 per cent more than 
on corn and oil meal. In this experiment, if the oil 
meal had cost $44 per ton, instead of $25, nothing 
would have been saved by feeding it. 

The results, though from but a single experiment 
and therefore not fully authoritative, indicate that 
corn and mixed grass of this kind do not supply 
sufficient protein. Those fed oil meal were much 
less troubled with scours, which may partially ac- 
count for ihe difference in favor of the oil meal lot. 
Cottonseed meal or gluten meal could be substi- 
tuted lor the oil lueal, or bran might answer the 
purpose, though fully twice as much, amounting 
to 20 per cent of the grain ration, would be needed. 
With pigs running behind the cattle, dry shelled corn 
may be ust-d. Oil meal in nut form, the pieces be- 
ing about the size of kernels of corn, mixes very 
well witli shelled corn, and blows out of open feed- 
ing bunks very much less than the finely ground 
meal. In this form, too, oil meal is less likely to 
be adulterated. Without hogs, corn should be fed 
ground or soaked. Soaking is cheaper, but care 
should be taken that it does not sour. In warm 
weather, shelled corn soaked 12 hours in a tight 
wagonbox will be quite soft and is not likely to 
sour. It will be understood that soaked corn 
should not be fed in such quantity that some will 
be left in the feed bunks to sour after the feed. 

Cattle two years old fed grain on grass in early 
summer can be made to make large gains, and they 
should be good enough to market before flies be- 
come very troublesome. To ship with small shrink- 
age, grass-fed cattle should be removed from the 
pasture one or two days before shipment and fed 
dry hay with little or no grain. 

If the cattle have had less rather than more than 
half a full feed of corn during the previous winter, 



170 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

very satisfactory gains may be secured on good 
grass without grain. If the grass is dry rather 
than watery during mid-summer and fall, a fair 
quality of beef may be made without any corn for 
finishing, though enough better prices usually are 
obtained to make corn feeding profitable, noticeably 
so when corn is not too high priced. In a Nebraska 
test, when corn was worth 40 cents per bushel, bran 
$16 per ton and pasture $3 per acre, grain-fed steers 
returned a net profit of $5 each, while grass without 
grain gave a net profit of but $2 per steer. The 
market that fall, however, was unusually favorable 
for grain-fed cattle. 

Fall Feeding Corn on Grass. — The new corn crop 
during most seasons is sufficiently ripe to cut and 
shock about September 15 in the Northern States. 
At that time a little may be drawn to the field to 
be fed in the stalk, ^^'ith this system the cattle 
have no grain in early summer. Four pounds of 
corn per steer will answer for the first feed, this 
amount to be gradually increased until the cattle 
are on full feed, about October 15. When full 
grain-fed, the cattle will consume less than half 
of the stalk, and, unless stock cattle can be turned 
in afterwards, much will be wasted. Under such 
circumstances it is better to substitute, in part, 
snapped corn. Cattle can be fed in the field until 
snow falls, which may be December i or later, at 
which time they should be ripe enough to bring a 
good price on the market. If, for any reason, the 
supply of grass is short, enough shock corn may be 
fed to furnish roughness, and the protein may be 
supplied by using bran, oil meal, cottonseed meal or 
gluten feed. In order to feed some one of these 
protein concentrates, it will be necessary to feed 
part of the corn shelled or ground to serve as a 
mixing medium. Half the corn fed in the stalk 



GRAIN ON PASTURE. I71 

will supply sufficient roughness, and the other half 
may be fed as shelled corn or ground corn and cob, 
in which is mixed one-fifth, by weight, of one of 
the concentrated protein foods mentioned. 

Feed-racks are necessary for field feeding, unless 
the pigs can be turned into the lot after the cattle 
have been fed — a matter easily regulated by call- 
ing the pigs into an enclosure each night, where they 
are given a slop consisting largely of shorts, per- 
mitting them to go out after the cattle have finished, 
which is usually near noon. In that case corn in the 
stalk could be scattered on the sod. One distinc- 
tive advantage which comes from scattering corn on 
the grass is that something in the shape of fertiliz- 
ing material is distributed over the pasture each 
year. Fields continuously pastured lose fertility 
unless something from outside sources is fed on the 
land, or barnyard manure is spread over the pas- 
ture at intervals. Feeding grain on pasture is more 
satisfactory because less labor is involved. Old 
blue-grass pastures are by far the best pastures, if 
the land is not allowed to deteriorate ; the grass 
then becomes less abundant and weeds of various 
kinds make their appearance. By keeping up the 
fertility as suggested, avoiding close pasturage, per- 
manent grass lands can be maintained which will 
|)roduce yearly a large number of pounds of beef. 
A loo-acre pasture field owned in part by the writer 
has pastured cattle continuously for over 30 years, 
and it is still producing highly nutritious blue-grass 
in abundance. In these days of scarce labor a good, 
permanent pasture field is a boon to every farmer 



CHAPTER XVI. 

WINTER FEEDING RANGE TWO-YEAR- 
OLD STEERS. 

Range Steers Sell as Feeders in the Fall. — A very 

large proportion of the steers two years old and 
over, fattened in the corn belt, are grown on the 
range lands of the West and Southwest. The 
farmer who raises the steers he feeds for market is 
hardly justified in holding them until they reach the 
age of 34 to 36 months, as is customary with range 
two-year-olds. Finishing in the fall on shock corn 
or snapped corn, or still earlier as yearlings or 
baby beeves, is more profitable. But with range 
steers the bulk of the offerings do not come to mar- 
ket until late fall, which makes winter feeding of 
that class the most common practice. 

Grain Fed Sparingly at First. — In feeding range 
cattle it is well to buy not later than November, in 
order that they may be started on corn slowly, yet 
finished before late May or June, when hot weather 
comes on. Range steers are often very thin in flesh 
because of a scarcity of grass, and in that condition 
it is much better to feed liberally on hay, at least 
the first six or eight weeks. Thin range steers 
frequently make a gain of 2 pounds per day the 
first two months, on an average feed of 8 pounds 
of grain per day, with all the good roughage they 
will consume. Not only does this gradual process 
of grain feeding remove all danger connected with 
the change from grass to grain, but hay used lib- 
erally seems to distend the digestive system, giving 

17a 



FEEDING RANGE TWO-YEAR-OLDS. 1 73 

larger capacity for future grain feeding. Cattle 
from the range, without this distention, are not the 
heaviest gainers. 

If cattle are in condition for heavy grain feeding 
early, 5 pounds per steer can be fed the first day, 
though 3 or 4 is more often better. The increase 
of grain should be made as has been suggested for 
yearlings, a full feed being reached in not less than 
five weeks, a little more time being preferable in 
most cases. 

Character of Winter Rations for Two-year-olds. 
— What has been said concerning the character of 
winter rations for yearlings will apply in a general 
way to steers two years old, though the latter re- 
quire less protein and are. therefore, more profitably 
fed wider rations. A ration, however, made up of 
corn and timothy hay, or any other non-nitrogenous 
roughage, will not supply two-year-olds with suffi- 
cient protein for profitable gains. At the Missouri 
Experiment Station corn and clover hay gave 29 per 
cent larger gains for grain consumed than corn and 
timothy hay. At the Illinois Experiment Station 
corn and clover effected a saving of 22 per cent of 
the grain required for a given gain, as compared 
with corn, timothy and corn stover. This was un- 
questionably due to the lack of protein in the latter 
ration ; for, when gluten meal, a concentrated pro- 
tein food, was supplied, there was required 24 per 
cent less grain for a given gain than without it. The 
nutritive ratio of the three rations fed is as follows : 
corn and clover, 1:9.4; corn, timothy and corn 
stover, 1:13; corn, timothy, stover and gluten meal, 
1 :9.4. The average of three tests at the Kansas 
Station shows that by using bran, shorts and oil 
meal to balance the ration, 28 per cent less grain 
was required for a given gain than when corn, 
stover and prairie hay were fed. In an Iowa experi- 



174 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

ment, where oil meal, cottonseed meal and gluten 
feed were used in separate lots in comparison with 
corn not thus supplemented, there was an average 
saving of 19 per cent of the grain fed, by the use of 
the supplemental foods. Had not a little clover 
been used toward the close, no doubt the saving 
efifected by the use of these foods would have been 
still greater. 

In a Nebraska test conducted in 1905 with thin 
range steers, corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, 
and prairie hay required a little over 5 per cent less 
grain per pound of gain than was required by corn 
and prairie hay without oil meal. This was a rather 
small saving compared with the 23 per cent on year- 
lings the previous winter. In the two-year-old test 
the oil meal cost $28 per ton and the corn 39 cents 
per bushel. With the small saving by the use of oil 
meal and with this food high in price, the cost of 
producing one pound of gain was practically the 
same in both lots. With the ten steers fed oil meal, 
however, a mvich earlier finish was secured, such as 
to make them bring $5.25 in Omaha as compared 
with $5.10 for the ten fed only corn and prairie 
hay — this, too, on an even start six months pre- 
vious. With all steers costing $4 per cwt. deliv- 
ered, and the oil meal lot selling for $4.98 net on 
home weights and the other lot $4.78, there was a 
net profit of $1.09 per steer Avith oil meal and a net 
loss of $1.12 per steer without oil meal. Had the oil 
meal cost $41.19 per ton instead of $28, the loss 
would have been the same with oil meal as without. 

Protein Roughage Usually More Profitable Than 
Protein Concentrates. — As has been suggested for 
dairy cows, a protein roughage is often more eco- 
nomically fed in connection with corn than is a more 
costly commercial protein food. In the Nebraska test 
just referred to, alfalfa and corn gave 14 per cent 



FEEDING RANGE TWO-YEAR-OLDS. I75 

larger gains, and correspondingly larger profits, for 
grain consumed, than prairie hay and corn, and 10 
per cent larger gains than prairie hay, corn and 
oil meal. Stated in another way, prairie hay, valued 
at $6 per ton, fed with oil meal proved equivalent to 
alfalfa at $8.28 per ton, and without oil meal equiv- 
alent to alfalfa at $11.14 P^^ ton. With oil meal cost- 
ing $28 per ton, alfalfa returned a value of $13 per 
ton in comparison with it. In an Illinois test, 
gluten meal at $28 per ton, fed in connection with 
timothy and corn stover, returned a slightly larger 
profit than corn and clover, the latter being then 
worth $11 per ton. 

Corn Stover With Alfalfa Cheapest.— The alfalfa 
and. corn ration in the Nebraska test gave a nutritive 
ratio of i :y.4. Apparently these steers were able to 
stand a ration still wider, as another lot of ten in the 
same experiment fed equal parts of alfalfa and corn 
stover required but 7.89 pounds of corn for one pound 
of gain as compared with 8.14 pounds with alfalfa 
alone, or 3 per cent less. The stover and alfalfa ration 
had a nutritive ratio of 1 18.4, which is added evidence 
in favor of something like i :8 in preference to a 
ration more narrow for two-year-old steers. 

The stover in this experiment was figured at $2.50 
per ton, a high valuation for a fodder allowed to go 
to waste in Western fields. This combination pro- 
duced gains at a cost of but $6.49 per hundred com- 
pared with alfalfa and corn at a cost of $6.89 per 
hundred, the alfalfa and corn ranking second in point 
of economy among the five lots fed in the experiment. 
With alfalfa worth $6 per ton as fed with corn, the 
stover returned a value of $4.63 when made one-half 
the roughage with alfalfa. The stover seemed to be 
well relished, though of course the stubs, or lower 
third, of the stalk were refused and were thrown out 




Lot. 1. Steers fed com and prairie hay. Cost, $3.90 per hundred ; selling price, $5.10. 




Lot 



Steers fed corn, 90% : oil meal. 10%, and prairie hay. Cost, $3.90 per hun- 
dred : sellins price, $5.25. . 
Two-Year Old Steers in a Nebraska test to show the effect of oil meal m a ration or 

corn and prairie hay. 

176 




c - o o 



178 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

for bedding, but charged to the steers as though all 
had been consumed. Not only did stover furnish 
variety, but it also lessened the tendency to scour on 
alfalfa. 

Character of the Stover Used. — The corn from 
which the stover came was cut and pvit into shocks 
just as soon as the ears had thoroughly dented and 
the husks about them had turned yellow, and yet 
while many of the leaves below were still green. At 
this stage, usually about the middle of September in 
the Northern States, the corn itself is in no wise in- 
jured by being harvested and there is a great deal of 
nutriment conserved in the stalk. Corn stover, being 
a by-product, has a low commercial value, which 
makes it a very economical food for beef production. 
Wherever corn is a staple crop, the stalk as well as 
the ear should be utilized, at least to the extent that 
the area of corn grown on a farm does not exceed 
the capacity of the farm for stock feeding. Should 
soil from which the stalks have been removed blow 
badly, as in drier sections, some stalks could be 
left standing between shock rows. 

Shock Corn for Winter Feeding. — With the in- 
troduction of the modern harvester, which cuts and 
ties in bundles of convenient size corn in the stalk, 
called "fodder corn," the farmer is enabled to put his 
crop in the shock usually at a cost not to exceed 
that of putting husked com in the crib. With the 
former method, the stalk is put where at least three- 
fourths of the nutriment it contained at harvesting 
time is carefully preserved for winter use, and the 
ear is protected by the husk, within which it keeps 
fresh and much softer for feeding whole than is ear 
corn. Two-year-old steers do not find it difficult 
to crush the ear, grinding husk, cob and corn to- 
gether, transferring the mixture to the stomach 



FEEDING RANGE TWO-YEAR-OLDS. 1 79 

where, owing to its bulk, it is easily penetrated by 
digestive juices. The writer during several years 
of practical experience in fattening cattle on shock 
corn has never had cases of founder or undue 
scouring, so commonly occurring among cattle 
heavily fed on shelled corn or corn meal. 

Shock corn is most conveniently fed by scatter- 
ing the bundles from a loaded wagon anywhere in 
a field which is to be plowed the following spring 
or pastured. The bundles need not be broken by 
cutting the twine. If fed in a yard, racks with 
vertical slats sufficiently wide apart to give room 
for the head should be provided. These slats prevent 
the cattle from pulling out stalks. 

Supplementing Shock Corn. — While this fodder 
is often used alone for fattening purposes, its 
deficiency in protein makes a protein supplement 
desirable. Excellent results may be secured by 
feeding half the ration of corn on the stalk, the 
other half as shelled corn or corn and cob meal in 
which is mixed a portion — one-fifth of the weight of 
grain thus fed — of either oil meal, cottonseed meal 
or gluten meal. If bran can be purchased at a price 
not to exceed one-half that of the protein foods men- 
tioned, it can be profitably used in double the quan- 
tity. With alfalfa or some other protein roughage 
fed in connection with corn fodder, less commercial 
protein food is needed. Had the lot fed corn, alfalfa 
and stover — the most profitable ration in the 1905 
Nebraska test — been supplied with corn fodder in- 
stead of stover, that much husking and shelling 
would have been saved and the ration would doubt- 
less have proved still more economical. In feeding 
shock corn to cattle on full grain feed, inasmuch as 
there will be consumed approximately two pounds 
of grain to one of roughage, and the stalk and ear 



l8o PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

are about equal in weight, not more than one-half 
the corn should be fed on the stalk unless stock cat- 
tle can be conveniently turned in later to make use 
of more of the stalk. It is needless to say that pigs 
should be kept to pick up all waste corn in the 
droppings. The profits from cattle feeding often 
come from the pork as a by-product. Not more 
than one pig to a steer will be needed. 

Snapped corn, which is the unhusked ear broken 
from the stalk, is most commonly used in Western 
States, where the stalks instead of being harvested are 
pastured in the field. Snapped corn is in every way 
a very satisfactory food for fattening cattle. It has 
all the merits of shock corn, being less cumbersome 
to feed, though with it more hay or other rough feed 
must be supplied to take the place of stalks. Cattle 
feeders not infrequently fatten cattle on nothing but 
snapped corn, depending upon husk and cob to fur- 
nish the necessary bulk. This is perhaps economical 
when corn is low in price. Under average market 
conditions, however, it is more profitable to make a 
larger use of roughage, and so long as the stalks, 
well cured, are nourishing and at the same time well 
relished, it would seem desirable to make use of 
them. Stalks left uncut in the field lose the larger 
part of their nutriment by exposure and by a grad- 
ual change of starch to the more indigestible crude 
fiber. While some use is made of the "stalk field," 
there is little value in the material after winter sets 
in, more than what is obtained from unhusked nub- 
bins and the uppermost leaves. Snapped corn is 
usually fed in ordinary tight bottomed flat bunks. 
The difficulty connected with the continued use of 
snapped corn is that of storage, as snapped corn in 
large piles sometimes heats, through lack of proper 
air circulation. For fall and early winter snapped 
corn is a popular Western food. It should be fed 
with alfalfa, clover or cowpea hay. 



FEEDING RANGE TWO-YEAR-OLDS. l8l 

Sore Mouths. — With long continued feeding- on 
heavily eared corn fodder or snapped corn a Httle 
soreness of the mouth or gums sometimes occurs, 
though with shock corn this is much less common 
than with husked ears, owing to the hardness of the 
latter. Should any individuals show soreness by a 
disposition to reject ears after taking them into the 
mouth, they had better be separated and fed corn 
meal mixed with bran, or corn and cob meal for a 
few weeks, or until the soreness disappears. 

Corn silage, so valuable for dairy cows, is also 
used for fattening steers, though its liberal use for 
that purpose is not to be recommended. Ten pounds 
of silage per day will supply all the bulk and water 
desirable in a fattening ration. That quantity, no 
doubt, would prove beneficial because of its cooling 
and laxative effect upon the system. The economy of 
using silage for fattening purposes, particularly with 
fairly mature cattle, is a matter of doubt in the mind 
of the writer. In the West, where fodder corn is in- 
expensive, it hardl}' seems practicable to spend much 
money in its preparation. Silos, cutting machines and 
labor in preparing corn for silage cost money, more in 
proportion to the value of the fodder in the West than 
in the East, where feed is costly and labor on a par 
with the West. Tf a silo is built for dairy cows it 
would doubtless be worth while to make use of a 
small quantity of silage for fattening cattle. 

Sorghum hay, or cane, has a feeding value very 
similar to that of well cured corn stover. A Ne- 
braska test in 1905, when sorghum hay was compared 
with prairie hay, both being fed with corn and oil 
meal, shows sorghum to be worth $4.63 per ton in 
comparison with prairie hay worth $6. Sorghum hay 
is of better quality for feeding purposes, if planted 
rather thicklv to make the stems small in size. This 



l82 PROFITABLE" STOCK FEEDING. 

fodder deteriorates in quality exceedingly if left 
exposed to heavy spring rains. 

Timothy hay, as has been intimated, is not a val- 
uable plant for cattle feeding, nor can it be profitably 
fed at average market prices. Its adaptability for 
horses gives it a price above the reach of the cattle 
feeder." It is commonly grown with clover to keep 
the latter from lodging, for which purpose but a small 
quantity of seed is needed — 'not more than a pint per 
acre. 

Prairie hay, as grown uncultivated on the West- 
ern plains, has a composition similar to timothy, 
though its analysis is unsatisfactory, because it con- 
tains a variety of grasses, giving it a variable com- 
position. This hay is less expensive than timothy 
and can be profitably used where prairie land is low 
in price. 

Millet is often grown for cattle feeding, usually 
because it yields a crop quickly and produces a good 
tonnage of fodder. Cattle feeders, as a rule, are not 
enthusiastic over millet, because it is very apt to in- 
duce scours. If grown for feeding purposes it 
should be fed with some other roughage. There 
is little reason why a cattle feeder should grow a 
large acreage of millet. 

Oat straw is sometimes made the sole roughness 
for fattening cattle, though it means the use of more 
grain. Oat straw does very well for half the rough- 
age for fattening cattle when good hay is difficult 
to secure at moderate prices. 

Wheat straw has little feeding value — according 
to Zuntz, the German investigator, no more than 
is expended in its mastication and partial digestion. 
While steers force themselves to eat it when other 
roughage is not furnished, its value is as a filler 
rather than as a source of nutriment. It would be 
much better to buy hay and use wheat straw for 



DEEDING RANGE TWO-YEAR-OLDS. 1^3 

bedding than to feed the straw and have insufficient 
bedding material. 

Flax straw often contains some of the seed and 
may be successfully used in feeding operations. It 
is relished by cattle and seems to have considerable 
nutritive value, at least more than oat or wheat 
straw. 

Beet pulp has recently been tested at the Colo- 
rado and Utah Stations. In Colorado two-year-old 
steers ate 123 pounds of pulp in connection with 12.5 
pounds of alfalfa, and gained on this 1.57 pounds 
per day at a cost of $3.79 per hundred pounds of 
gain. By feeding corn the gain was 2 pounds per 
day, but the cost was increased to $5.93 per hundred 
pounds of gain. At the Utah Station there were 
required 31.4 pounds of pulp and 11.5 pounds of 
alfalfa for one pound of gain. With alfalfa worth 
$3.50 per ton and beet pulp 50 cents, the cost of one 
hundred pounds of gain was only $2.80. 

Roots are extensively grown in European coun- 
tries for feeding beef cattle as well as dairy stock. 
They are always sliced before feeding, which labor of 
preparation, with the cost of growing and harvest- 
ing the crop, makes them impracticable for Amer- 
ican conditions, at least in the corn belt, where any 
desirable succulence may be furnished more cheaply 
with corn silage. Ten pounds of roots per day for 
a fattening steer are unquestionably beneficial, and 
were it not for the expense, they would doubtless 
be grown for that purpose. Of the root crops the 
mangel is most in favor, considering both yield and 
food value. 

Feeding Three-year-old Range Steers in Winter. 
— The method of feeding this class of cattle is 
so similar to the feeding of two-year-olds that little 
need be said more than to suggest that older and 
more mature cattle require a little less protein. 



184 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Where, for example, a two-year-old would make 
profitable gains on oil meal to the extent of 12 per 
cent of the grain ration, with corn and prairie or 
timothy hay, the three-year-old would do well on 
8 or 10 per cent. Three-year-old range steers, 
while requiring more feed for a given gain than 
younger cattle, are sometimes fed with as much 
profit, because the advance in selling price over cost 
price is made on a. larger initial weight. 

Cattle should be sold when they show finish. — It 
is not profitable to hold cattle after they have sufii- 
cient finish to make them bring a reasonably good 
figure on the market. Two-year-old steers, in a 
1905 Nebraska test, dropped from an average gain 
of about 2 pounds per day during the fifth month 
to less than i^^ pounds the sixth month, at the 
end of which time they topped the market. A 
longer period would have been a disastrous loss. 
The best period of feeding can not be stated in 
months. Cattle should be sold when they show suffi- 
cient fat to give fullness in the purse, or scrotum 
sack, and underneath the throat ; when the flank 
bunches as the animal walks, and there is noticeable 
over most of the frame a fairly thick covering of 
flesh. There is often apparent to the eye a padding 
moving back and forth on the side of the shoulder 
during locomotion, which serves as an index. These 
indications, while difficult to describe, become 
familiar to the feeder after a few years' experience. 

Shipment of Cattle. — About two days previous to 
shipment the grain should be reduced one-third and 
the following day another third, the hay being in- 
creased correspondingly. By feeding the cattle on 
hay — preferably prairie or timothy — with little or 
no grain, there will be much less scouring and a 
lighter shrinkage. 

The practice of withholding water from cattle some 



FEEDING RANGE TWO-YEAR-OLDS. 185 

time before shipment, in order that they may be 
famishing for drink after they reach the stock yards, 
thus taking on a heavier "fill," is a most cruel one. 
Cattle sometimes reach the chutes too weak to stand, 
suffering intensely from thirst. Men who treat their 
stock in this manner have no business owning stock 
of any description, and if they insist upon shipping, 
proper laws should be enacted to protect their stock. 
Fortunately, the packers discount cattle filled as de- 
scribed, though it takes some men a long time to find 
it out. Cattle that have water before them up to 
loading do not ordinarily drink to excess unless 
driven a long distance on a hot day, when it could 
be limited. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

CORN SUBSTITUTES, PROTEIN CONCEN- 
TRATES, AND THE PREPARATION OF 
FOODS FOR FATTENING CATTLE. 

Kafir corn will stand much drier weather than 
common corn, for which reason it is more success- 
fully grown than corn in semiarid regions. At the 
Kansas Experiment Station, Kafir corn was found 
to be 6 per cent below corn in feeding value. Owing 
to the hardness of the seeds, this grain should be 
ground or soaked before feeding. 

Sorghum, or cane, will also stand more dry- 
weather than corn, but the seeds are less commonly 
used for fattening purposes than are the seeds of 
Kafir corn. The two are similar in composition and 
nearly equal in feeding value for steers. 

Barley, when ground, can be used in a steer's ra- 
tion, either alone or with corn. The latter is 
preferable. Barley is not so well relished, and is, 
if anything, a little below corn in feeding value, 
though the two are similar in composition. 

Wheat meal was compared with corn meal in a 
Nebraska test, 1901-02. To make the wheat less 
sticky, one-fifth bran was used in both lots and later 
oil meal. In the comparison, wheat gave 5 per cent 
larger gains than corn. At the Ohio Station, corn 
meal alone gave 7 per cent larger gains for food 
consumed than wheat meal alone. It would seem safe 
to conclude that they are about equal in value, and 
whenever wheat can be purchased at corn prices, 
which seldom happens, it may be fed. 

Oats, though more bulky than corn, are very use- 
186 



CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR CATTLE. 187 

ful for cattle feeding, especially for young stock. 
They are less fattening, which, with their bulk, 
makes them more useful as an adjunct than as a 
substitute for corn. Their feeding value is no higher, 
pound for pound, than corn, and they are usually 
more costly per hundred, which makes them more 
expensive to feed. Oats, though richer in protein 
than corn, are hardly to be classed among protein 
foods. They are a most excellent feed, when the 
price will permit their use. 

Commercial Protein Foods. — What has been said 
concerning supplemental protein foods for dairy cat- 
tle applies also to fattening cattle. They are all 
useful, and the matter of choice depends entirely 
upon current prices, assuming the foods are equal 
in quality. 

Cottonseed meal, while richer in protein than 
oil meal, is perhaps more often inferior in quality. 
There are not sufficient experimental data on record 
to warrant one in placing a value above the others 
upon any one of these concentrated foods, cotton- 
seed meal, oil meal, gluten meal or soy bean meal, 
though the composition indicates an advantage for 
cottonseed meal. 

Bran is an excellent food material because of its 
"corrective" qualities as well as protein content, and 
is particularly useful as a part of a heavy grain 
ration. Frequently, however, the price of bran is such 
as to make it much more costly per hundred weight 
of protein than the concentrated foods previously 
mentioned. It would not be safe to give bran a 
value per ton to exceed one-half that of oil meal or 
other foods of that class. Shorts are still higher in 
price than bran and rather too sticky for cattle. 

Condimental Stock Foods. — These foods are dis- 
cussed freely in the last chapter on dairy cattle and the 



l88 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

conclusions are as applicable to fattening cattle. The 
Iowa Station, after very careful experimentation, 
found them entirely too costly to be economically 
used for steer feeding. 

Grinding grain for fattening cattle undoubtedly 
saves some feed, though this saving is not ordi- 
narily great enough to pay for the grinding. At the 
Kansas Station 8 per cent was saved, which would 
be considered a good showing, yet this saving would 
mean but 45^2 pounds of corn to the bushel — with 
corn high in price, perhaps enough to pay the grind- 
ing bill, but not the labor. In the case of sore 
mouths or when a quick finish is sought, or with 
cholera too prevalent to make the keeping of pigs for 
running behind cattle safe, grinding is practicable. 
The feasibility of grinding, therefore, depends en- 
tirely upon circumstances, but for Western condi- 
tions it is not ordinarily profitable to grind corn for 
cattle. 

Crushing corn in the husk by means of a machine 
for that purpose is often practical, because it 
breaks the ears enough to make mastication easier 
and at the same time costs but little — with a large 
crusher from one to two cents per bushel. Crushed 
corn has all the advantages of snapped corn and 
corn on the stalk, and it can be fed to small cattle 
as well as large. The use of the crusher will with- 
out a doubt become more general among cattle 
feeders. 

Cutting up corn fodder by means of an ensilage 
cutter is practiced successfully, and such fodder is 
excellent for cattle too small to feed upon whole 
ear corn in the stalk. 

Shredding corn stover is usually done in connec- 
tion with husking by machinery. Shredded stover is 
more completely consumed than unshredded. and 
has a somewhat higher food value because of its 



CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR CATTLE. 189 

mechanical condition, though its extra value will 
hardly give remuneration for the labor involved in 
shredding. If stalks can be shredded at a ver\' 
slight cost above the expense of getting the corn 
husked it may pay. It is excellent material for 
feeding in barns, inasmuch as the waste is very use- 
ful for bedding stalls, in addition to the fact that 
shredded stover is more conveniently handled in- 
side. For outdoor feeding it would be unwise to go 
to the expense of shredding corn stover for steers 
two years old or older. The lower third of the corn 
stalk does not possess a nutritive value equal to the 
energy expended in "trying" to digest it. To at- 
tempt to force cattle to clean up these inert stubs 
is to put upon them unnecessary and unprofitable 
work. The upper part can be masticated more cheaply 
by these older cattle than it can be cut up by ma- 
chinery. 

Cutting or chaffing hay and straw is practiced 
more largely in Europe than in America. The ex- 
pense of such work is so great in comparison with the 
original value of the roughage and the added value of 
the fodder that the practice is unprofitable for Mid- 
dlewest and Western conditions. 

Farm animals are equipped for masticating most 
foods in the crude state, and, thus equipped, they 
are able to do the necessary mechanical work at less 
cost than it can be done by purchased power. Some 
seeds are too small and hard to be fed whole, but 
fodder plants, as a rule, are more profitably used 
whole, which will be true as long as labor is costly 
and roughage is low in price. 



190 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 





Range-cattle Scenes In Western Nebraska. 



PART IV 

SHEEP 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

MUTTON TYPE. 

Outlook for Sheep Favorable. — There is a grow- 
ing tendency on the part of the public to consume 
more mutton. This may be due in part to the fact 
that mutton carcasses are more carefully dressed and 
better ripened than formerly, but more likely it is 
both because a better grade of mutton sheep is 
being produced and because it is marketed earlier 
than was the case several years ago. During former 
years when wool was higher in price, the country 
was largely stocked with fine-wooled sheep of the 
distinctively wool breeds. These sheep were retained 
on the farms perhaps several years for the annual 
clip of wool, and when finally placed upon the 
market had become so aged as to make the meat 
tough, as well as strongly flavored. With lower 
prices for wool, there have come about marked 
changes in the, character of flocks. Rams of the 
mutton breeds, including the Shropshire, South- 
down, Hampshire, Cotswold, Oxford, Lincoln, and 
Leicester, have been crossed upon native fine-wooled 
ewes, resulting in a good quality of mutton stock. 
These crossbred mutton sheep do not produce so heavy 
a fleece as do the Merino, and at prevailing prices for 
wool it is not orofitable to carry them over for their 
second clip and the little increase in weight ; but 

191 



192 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

their points of excellence for mutton production are 
so much greater than their deficiencies for wool 
production in comparison with the Merino, that 
they are now in greater favor. Merino ewes of 
improved strains are still preferred for range con- 
ditions, because they not only shear a heavier fleece 
but their dense, fine wool and smaller frames make 
them better able to withstand the hardships of 
the range. With the more recent advance in the 
price of wool, there is now a tendency upon the part 
of farmers to retain in the breeding ewes somewhat 
more of the Merino blood, depending upon the 
heavy mutton rams to produce a type of lamb which 
has proved very satisfactory in the feed-lot, though 
somewhat smaller than higher grades of mutton 
stock. 

Another favorable sign, for at least the immediate 
future of the sheep industry, is the fact that the 
number of sheep in all parts of the world has not 
kept pace with the increase of population. The de- 
cline in number is perhaps greatest in Australia, 
which is largely attributable to the unprecedented 
drouth in that country. Argentina seems to be the 
only country showing an increase in the number 
of sheep. Whereas in 1870 there was one sheep 
for every inhabitant of the globe, in 1900 there 
was but one sheep for every two people. 

Familiarity With the Habits of Sheep Essential 
to Success. — With present conditions more favor- 
able for mutton production, it is well worth the while 
of the farmer or stockman to acquaint himself with 
the best methods of handling sheep. No farm animal 
is less understood by the masses, in the West at 
least, simply because they are handled by what may 
be termed "sheep feeding specialists." 

Sheep are different from cattle and swine in their 
habits and characteristics. A man eminently success- 



MUTTON TYPE. 193 

ful in rearing and fattening either of these classes 
might easily fail with sheep. At most, the highest 
success cannot reasonably be expected without first 
giving the business careful study or without spending 
several years in gaining experience. The former 
method is less expensive and brings quicker returns, 
though some personal experience is an aid to the most 
carefully instructed. It would not be considered ad 
visable for an inexperienced sheep raiser, no matter 
how thoroughly he has posted himself on the ins and 
outs of the business, to begin on a large scale. He 
would better enlarge his business as he finds himself 
capable, because there is so much at stake in conduct- 
ing large- feeding operations that even a slight erro? 
might result in a considerable loss. 

The Temperament of Sheep. — Sheep are natu 
rally timid in disposition, and a sudden disturbance 
of any kind, as the bark of a dog or any sharp noise, 
will sometimes create ^ panic in the entire flock. 
Sheep, through fright, have been known to crowd 
together so closely as to cause some to die from 
smothering. Care should therefore be taken to 
avoid unnecessary disturbances of any sort which 
will cause fright, resulting in no little shrinkage on 
the entire flock, if not mortality. Some flock- 
masters, to avoid startling their sheep, make a prac- 
tice of whistling or talking to them, as they ap- 
proach unexpectedly. 

The Dog Difficulty. — The unusual timidity of 
sheep makes raising them in some localities un- 
satisfactory because of troublesome dogs. One dog, 
entering a flock, will start the entire number on a 
run across the field, and, if the chase is continued, 
several will die from exhaustion and others will 
shrink badly in weight. Dogs not uncommonly en- 
ter fields during the night and run down sheep, 
tearing the skin with their teeth — perhaps killing 



194 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

several — simply for the pleasure of doing something 
vicious. Some states have laws which provide a 
tax upon all dogs owned in a township, the fund 
accruing therefrom being used to pay sheep-killing 
losses, when the owner of the dog is not known 
or does not have sufficient means to make good 
the loss. Where it is not practicable to keep a night- 
watch for dogs, the simplest remedy is to attach a 
string to a piece of fresh meat and drag it across the 
field, leaving it at the end of the trail charged with 
a good dose of some deadly poison, strychnine being 
most effective. Strange dogs entering the field will 
immediately scent the fresh meat, and following the 
trail, will soon get the poison, which invariably has 
the intended effect. During the practice of such a 
method, any valuable dogs belonging to the owner of 
the sheep must, of course, be tied up. Billy-goats do 
not ordinarily run from dogs, and one or two are 
sometimes kept in a flock of sheep to prevent losses. 
Where the goats can be taught to stay with the flock, 
this method often succeeds, although it may be neces- 
sary to rear the young goats with the sheep to teach 
them to remain with the flock at all times, that they 
may be present when protection is needed. Sheep 
and goats do not interbreed. 

Coyotes and Wolves. — In parts of the West, 
coyotes and wolves give the same trouble, and some 
such method as has been suggested for dogs must be 
practiced with them. A number of bells of consider- 
able size and volume attached by neck straps to the 
strongest sheep have proved successful in keeping 
coyotes away, and they have sometimes proved ef- 
fective with dogs. 

Mutton Type. — ^Tn the profitable production of 
mutton, type is a factor, as in beef production, 
though the markets do not discriminate so closely 
between types of sheep as between types of cattle. 



MUTTON TYPE. 



195 



relatively more importance being given to condition, 
or fatness, in sheep. The covering of wool makes it 
difficult for a buyer to judge conformation accu- 
rately without handling, which would be a tedious 
process with a large number of sheep. From the 
butcher's point of view, the fat sheep should resem- 
ble in a general way the form of a fat steer. There 
should be breadth of back and loin and thickness of 
covering over these parts. The hind quarter of the 
sheep, including the rump and thighs, called the 
leg of mutton, is one of the highest priced cuts in 
the carcass, higher proportionately than the same 
cut in the beef carcass, for which reason it is espe- 
cially important that sheep should have full, wide 
rumps and full, deep thighs. Broad and deep chests 
and large heart girths are equally as important in 
sheep as in cattle, inasmuch as fullness in that 
region means greater constitutional vigor and 
greater gaining capacity. 




Ewes and Lambs in Pasture. 



196 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

The following score-card suggested by Craig for 
mutton sheep is in use among agricultural colleges. 
The relative importance of different parts is shown 
by the numerical values assigned to each : 

Scale of Points for Mutton Sheep — Wether: 

Perfect 
Score. 

General appearance: 

Weight, according to age 8 

Form, long, low, symmetrical, compact 5 

Quflity, clean bone, silky hair, fine skin, yielding large 

percentage of meat 8 

Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh, e-^vtecially in 
regions of valuable cuts , 8 

Head and neck: 

Muzzle, fine; mouth large; lips thin; nostrils Inrge 

Eyes, bright, full 

Face, short, clean cut features 

Forehead, broad 

Ears, fine, erect 

Neck, thick, short 

Forequarters : 

Shoulder vein, full , 

Shoulders, covered, compact 

Chest, wide, deep , 2 

Brisket, projecting forward; breast wide 1 

Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; forearm full; 
shank smooth 2 

Body: 

Back, straight, long, wide; ribs arched 10 

Loin, thick, broad^ long 10 

Flank, low, thick, making underline straight 2 

Hindquarters : 

Hips, far apart, smooth 1 

Eump, long, level, wide 4 

Thighs, full 4 

Twist, plump, deep 4 

Legs, straight, short, strong ; shank smooth 2 

Constitution : 

Girth, large ; fore flank full 3 

Skin, pink color 2 

Fleece, dense and even over body; yolk abundant 4 

Wool: 

Quantity, long, dense, even 4 

Quality, fine, soft, pure, even 4 

Condition, bright, strong, clean 4 

Total o 100 



MUTTON TYPE. 197 

The score-card is particularly useful to the man 
who selects a ram for a breeding flock. If by select- 
ing a good ram, lo per cent is added to the profits on 
each of his lambs by virtue of better feeding and 
killing qualities inherited, enough larger revenues 
may be secured in one year to pay the extra consid- 
eration. In using the score-card as a guide in judg- 
ing sheep, it is absolutely necessary to depend upon 
the hands. The wool of the sheep, being variable in 
length, may cover up imperfections or may give the 
sheep an appearance wdiich does him injustice. A 
flockmaster skilful in trimining wool is often able to 
give an inferior sheep the appearance of being good 
in form. Pressing the palms of the hands closely 
against the body of the sheep at all parts is the only 
thorough method to pursue. With practice a sufifi- 
cient degree of accuracy in judging mutton type 
may be obtained to be of great assistance to one 
engaged in sheep raising. 

Digestive Capacity of Sheep. — In their capacity 
to consume food, sheep resemble cattle. They have 
the four stomachs, one connected with another, the 
paunch, or first, being very capacious, so that large 
quantities of bulky food, like hay, can be digested and 
assimilated. It is customary to figure that eight or 
ten average-sized sheep will consume as much as one 
two-year-old steer. The proportion of roughness to 
grain most suitable for fattening sheep is about the 
same as for fattening cattle, though sheep will fatten 
upon a somewhat larger proportion of hay. On ac- 
count of their smaller size they consume less perfectly 
the coarsest fodder, as whole cornstalks, for which 
reason such fodder is sometimes first run through a 
cutting machine. Sheep grind their food, however, 
much more thoroughly than do cattle, thus making it 
possible to feed grain without first grinding or soak- 
ing it. 



198 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 




CHAPTER XIX. 

THE FARMER'S BREEDING FLOCK. 

Fences. — In the West, farms are often not prop- 
erly fenced for pasturing a breeding flock of ewes. 
The ordinary two or three strand barbed wire cattle 
fence will not hold sheep. If the lower wires are 
farther apart than six inches, sheep are likely to crowd 
between. Their heavy covering of wool prevents 
them from being badly scratched, on account of which 
barbs are less effective than with other classes of farm 
animals. Five strands of well-stretched barbed wire, 
five, six, seven, eight, and ten inches apart, those 
closest being at the bottom, will turn sheep, and a 
sixth wire one foot above will make it suitable also 
for cattle. For lambs the wires should not be more 
than four inches apart. Any barbed wire fence will 
mean the loss of more or less wool. The most satis- 
factory fence for sheep, although it is a little more 
expensive, is one of the approved woven wir.e pat- 
terns. A 24-inch strip of woven wire at the bottom 
with two strands of barbed wire above is adequate 
for both cattle and sheep. The fence difficulty, to- 
gether with the fact that dogs and coyotes are trou- 
blesome, makes sheep breeding in some sections of 
the West impracticable, at least temporarily so. 
Should the farmer be able to overcome these diffi- 
culties, he will find a moderate-sized flock of breed- 
ing ewes profitable and otherwise desirable. The 
annual clip of wool marketed each spring gives him 
a little ready cash at that season, and more revenue 
follows when the lambs are ready to sell in the fall 
or winter. 

199 



200 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Sheep as Weed Eradicators. — From a secondary 
point of view, sheep are extremely valuable as weed 
destroyers, for no other farm animals will consume 
certain weeds with such apparent relish as will 
sheep. For turning into stubble-fields they are use- 
ful, because they eat both weeds and certain in- 
ferior grass plants which cattle refuse. They seem 
particularly fond of ragweed. Pastures badly in- 
fested with weeds can often be cleared entirely of 
the noxious plants by turning in a flock of sheep for 
one or two seasons. There is a popular notion that 
sheep are hard upon pasture grasses, because they 
crop close to the ground. They do this when com- 
pelled to on account of a scarcity of vegetation, but 
do not injure pastures if the fields are not exces- 
sively stocked. On the contrary, they improve 
them by keeping down weeds which would choke 
out the grass if allowed to grow. 

Pasturing Sheep With Cattle. — Many farmers 
run both sheep and cattle in the same pasture with 
satisfactory results although there is a popular preju- 
dice against the practice. There is little objection to 
this when the fields are large, though cattle no 
doubt do observe that the industrious sheep have 
hunted out and devoured the tenderest grasses and 
clovers, and they do not eat with quite the relish 
they otherwise would, which is a matter of impor- 
tance where an effort is being made to secure large 
gains with cattle on grass. 

Character of the Breeding Flock. — For produc- 
ing market lambs, none other than strong, vigorous 
ewes, possessing good teeth, should be kept. When 
a ewe reaches the age of seven or eight years, some 
teeth are likelv tn be missing, and the ewe is probably 
other-wise impaired. Let such be marketed oflf grass, 
or perhaps finished with a little grain, if the mouth is 
in fairlv cfood condition. The ewes retained should be 



FARMER S .^REEDING FLOCK. 20I 

regular breederc and reasonably prolific. Tliose hav- 
ing a predominance of Shropshire or Hampshire blood 
or the blood of some other so-called mutton breeds will 
produce a higher percentage of lambs than will the 
Merino. However, crossbred Merino-Shropshire 
ewes are known to be prolific, and fine-wooled ewes, 
•such as the Merino, as already mentioned, shear 
more wool, which is a point very much in their 
favor. Everything considered, fine-wooled ewes hav- 
ing a considerable infusion of the blood of the mutton 



f 


.M 


M 


'M' ~' 










w--' 




1 


H 


1 


^^1 


^^H 



Shropshire Ram and Uange-bred Shropshire-Merino Ewes. 

breeds, such as Shropshire and Hampshire, are most 
satisfactory. Under favorable conditions, from a hun- 
dred to a hundred and fifty lambs can be had from one 
hundred such ewes, and a fleece of from eight to ten 
pounds from each of such a flock is not unusual. As 
fast as old ewes are culled out, young ones may be 
purchased to replace them, or ewe lambs may be re- 
tained. It is not advisable to breed young ewes until 
they are past one year of age, because too early 



202 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



motherhood has a tendency to prevent the full de- 
velopment of the animal. 

The period of gestation with a sheep is five 
months, or, to be more accurate, an average of 152 
days. The best time for breeding will depend upon 
housing facilities during the lambing season and upon 
local market conditions. 

Winter or Hothouse Lambs. — In some of our 
Eastern states there has recently developed the busi- 




Photo by Gazette. 
"Baby Mutton in February." A. J. French, Wakeman, Ohio. 

ness of raising so-called hothouse lambs for the grat- 
ification of the more wealthy classes. Ewes are bred 
to produce lambs early in December, which lambs are 
rapidly fattened and made to weigh 40 or 50 pounds 
each, at the age of three months, when they are sold. 
A ewe which will give a liberal flow of milk is most 
desirable. For this reason the Dorset Horn or 
crossbred Dorset- Merino ewes are in favor. They 
are heavy milkers and are also more likely to breed at 
the proper season for producing such lambs. The 



FARMER S BREEDING FLOCK. 2O3 

Hampshire is also recognized as a breed suitalde for 
the production of such early lambs, though the Hamp- 
shire lamb ripens later and attains to heavier weights 
than the fancy trade desires. The ewe's milk is some- 
times reinforced by cow's milk. Corn and a small 
proportion of other grains are fed liberally as early as 
the lambs can be taught to eat, and the best kind of 
shelter is provided. Lambs reared in this way are 
dressed and sent by express into the city where they 
find their way to the largest hotels and a few of the 
most wealthy families. Because of their tender flesh 
they command a high figure. Twenty-five cents per 
pound, dre?sed, is not an extraordinary price for such 
lambs. 

This particular branch of the sheep business is not 
likely to become extensive, except in certain localities 
where market conditions are favorable for it, and in 
those places, curiously enough, it has not yet been 
overdone. 

Early Spring Lambs. — For producing a lamb 
which can be made ready for the early fall market, 
February and March are the popular months. The 
ram is turned with the fiock of ewes in September for 
February lambs. Should one ram be used for fifty 
ewes, it is desirable that he be left with them not longer 
than twelve hours each day, as in this way his breed- 
ing power is better' conserved, and the lambs wall be 
stronger at birth. 

Since it is an established fact that a larger percent- 
age of lambs will be produced if the ewes are well 
nourished during the breeding season, gaining 
rather than losing in flesh, care should be taken that 
the pasture does not become scanty. A little grain 
may be supplied each day, if for any reason the 
grass becomes short at a time when the ewes are 
being bred. 

Winter Feed for Breeding Ewes. — During the 



204 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

winter months it is better economy to feed ewes rough- 
ness with Httle or no grain. If the roughness con- 
sists largely of alfalfa or clover hay, no grain need 
be fed. If only prairie hay, timothy, cornstalks, or 
sorghum are available, it will pay to feed a small al- 
lowance of bran, either alone or mixed with a little 
oil meal. Oats and bran make a good ration fed with 
such roughness, if the oats are not too expensive. 
If corn is fed at all to breeding ewes, it should be 
sparingly, as too much starchy food causes a deposi- 
tion of fat internally, injuring the lamb more or 
less while in iitero. 

Housing Facilities. — 1 he ewes should not be 
closely confined in a poorly-ventilated barn. Their 
covering of wool is abundant protection from the cold 
and they are better off out of doors except during 
storms. Owing to their long wool which does not dry 
quickly, they are very likely to contract colds 
(sniffles), if exposed to cold rains. Freedom to go 
in and out of a shed, open on the south side, in 
which hay is fed, is the best arrangement. As the 
time for lambing approaches, a place closed on all 
sides, with enough south windows for ventilation 
and sunlight, should be provided. It is also desir- 
able to have small pens in one of which a ewe may 
be kept two or three days immediately after lamb- 
ing. 

Caring for Young Lambs. — If for any reason a 
lamb is unable to stand and suck, it should be assisted 
a few times until- it has proper strength. If a ewe re- 
fuses to own a lamb, as occasionally happens, she can 
usually be made to do so by keeping her for several 
days in an individual pen with only the lamb for com- 
pany and out of sight of the other sheep. It is usually 
necessary to hold her for the lamb to nurse several 
times a day for a few days. In case of the loss of 
some of the lambs, transfers may be made fron ewes 



FARMER S BREEDING FLOCK. 205 

having twins or triplets to those having none, if the 
attendant is painstaking and persevering. A ewe 
will frequently own a strange lamb if some of her 
milk is first sprinkled over the lamb. What is still 
more effective is the practice of removing the skin 
of the ewe's lamb that has died, tying it over the 
back of the lamb which is to be adopted. If the cir- 
cumstances are such that no mother can be pro- 
vided, an orphan lamb may be raised on the bottle 
by supplying fresh cow's milk and feeding it at 
frequent intervals throughout the day for several 
days. After the first two weeks the lamb will need 
feeding but three times a day. 

Feeding the Fresh Ewe. — While suckling lambs, 
a ewe should have food in liberal quantity. Ewes 
producing these early lambs have no grass for some 
time, and should be given, where possible, something 
succulent, like corn silage or such roots as mangels, 
turnips and sugar beets, to stimulate the flow of 
milk. x\lfalfa and clover are both good for milk pro- 
duction, and where these are available, corn may be 
made the greater part or all of the grain ration. It 
should not be fed, however, in a quantity greater 
than one pound of corn to two of either clover or 
alfalfa. Without clover or alfalfa — that is, when the 
roughness is timothy or prairie hay, cornstalks, or 
such other fodder — it will be necessary to make the 
grain ration at least one-third bran or one-sixth oil 
meal to furnish the necessary protein. The ewes 
should be allowed grass pasture as early as possible. 
When the grass becomes abundant, no grain is 
needed. 

February and early March lambs can be made to 
weigh seventy to eighty pounds each by the last 
of August or first of September. They should not 
be weaned until sold, as an unnecessary shrinkage 



206 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

would follow if weaned and then held for several 
days. 

Feeding Young Lambs Grain. — A heavier and 
fatter lamb can be made by feeding a little grain dur- 
ing the summer in what is called a lamb creep. Such 
a creep is made by driving stakes into the ground 
just far enough apart to admit the lambs but not the 
old sheep. When the lambs become large, there are 
some advantages in having cylindrical stakes which 
revolve as the lamb crowds between. This form is 
generally used in England. Lambs can be taught 
to eat grain when only a few weeks old. This may 
consist of equal parts of corn, oats and bran at first, 
gradually lessening the bran and increasing the com 
until the ration finally becomes two-thirds corn and 
one-third oats. Lambs so fed should reach a weight 
of 70 to 80 pounds in June, when they are usually in 
demand. However, since good lambs can be fattened 
for a later market without grain if there is sufficient 
grass for the ewes, the economy of feeding grain dur- 
ing the summer will depend entirely upon the price 
of feed and the market outlook. When lambs are 
weaned, it is well to remove the ewes to shorter 
feed or to dry feed to lessen the milk flow and thus 
prevent caked udders, which are a permanent in- 
jury. 

Later Spring Lambs. — For those who are not 
equipped with buildings suitable for housing early 
lambs, it will be best to have lambs come late in April 
or in May, when they will require less attention. 
The ewes then may be kept all winter in the open 
shed, lambing after the warm spring weather be- 
gins. Lambs which come this late may be left in 
the field during the day, or all the time if the 
weather is warm, where they bask in the sun and 
frolic about as soon as they become strong. The 
fresh grass insures a good flow of milk, which, of 



farmer's breeding flock. 207 

course, is greatly to the advantage of young lambs. 
Late lambs are not usually grained during the sum- 
mer, because they are hardly old enough for a fall 
market. They are weaned in September and are 
more profitably fed for a late winter or spring 
market. 



CHAPTER XX. 

FATTENING LAMBS IN THE FALL. 

Pasture. — Whether the farmer raises his own 
feeding lambs or buys them from the range, his profits 
from fall feeding will be much greater if he provides 
an abundance of pasture of the right kind. The ad- 
visability of supplementing pasture with grain is a 
matter which depends upon the degree of flesh at the 
time the lambs are weaned or purchased,' the current 
price of grain and the time chosen for inarketing. 
The pasture plants most suitable for lambs and most 
to be depended upon in the fall are clover, alfalfa and 
rape, each of which will be described in the order 
named. 

Clover for Fall Pasture. — In localities where 
clover is largely depended upon for the hay crop, 
it is cut late in June or early in July. The second 
growth, or aftermath, comes on at once if there is suf- 
ficient rain, and by September ist there will be a heavy 
growth. The second crop of clover is not considered 
as satisfactory as the first crop for hay making, be- 
cause it is less tender and because it is difficult to 
cure properly at that time of year, at least in regions 
of comparatively heavy rainfall. It is better for the 
land if the second crop is pastured, so long as it is 
not pastured too close, as the manure is then left on 
the field, whereas if the second crop'is cut, nothing 
is put back on the land. Pasturing close until late 
fall exposes the roots to the action of the frosts, 
and is detrimental to the following year's crop. 
With a moderate number of sheep on second growth 
clover, some seed will mature, and this worked into 

208 



FATTENING LAMBS IN THE FALL. 2O9 

the soil by the tramping of the sheep will add to 
the prospects for another crop the following year. 
Second growth clover makes good fall pasture for 
lambs, because it is relished by them and because 
it is rich in protein. It insures a good growth of 
frame and puts them in condition to make heavy 
gains when placed in the feed lot for heavy feeding 
some time in November. 

Grain with Clover. — If lambs are to be marketed 
in late fall, they should be given shelled corn while on 
clover. Clover really contains somewhat more pro- 
tein than is needed, and corn, being deficient in pro- 
tein but excessively starchy, combines well with the 
legume to make a balanced ration. Lambs which have 
just been weaned are also less likely to lose some of 
their milk flesh if they are given a little corn with 
good clover pasture. They will not need more than 
one-fourth of a pound of corn each per day to start 
with, this to be graduall}- increased until they are 
consuming about one pound each per day late in 
the fall. They will eat more than this if it is 
thought best to crowd for an earlier market, but 
when clover is abundant, cheaper gain can be se- 
cured by "feeding a little less than a full feed of 
corn. When oats are worth no more per pound 
than corn, they may be mixed with the latter to 
good advantage, but oats are seldom so cheap. A 
little bran serves as a good regulator with corn, 
when it can be had at a moderate price. 

Grain Troughs. — For feeding grain in the field, 
suitable troughs must be provided. If the lambs are 
being fed a heavy grain ration, it is best to construct 
a trough which will require them to eat rather slowly. 
To this end. the wide, flat-bottomed trough is prefer- 
able to the V-shaped. These troughs are constructed 
by using boards from 12 to 16 feet long and one foot 
wide for the bottom ; narrow boards, three or four 



210 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

inches wide, for the sides and ends ; with a six-nich 
board above to keep the lambs from standing in 
the trough. This board running lengthwise may 
be nailed to supports placed at each end and in the 
middle : and it is more effective if placed horizon- 
tally, or flatwise, to the trough. There should be 
enough space between the board above and the 
trough below to give the lambs sufficient head room 
— about eight inches — and enough troughs should 
be placed in the field to permit all to eat at the same 
time. Each lamb reqviires from seven to eleven 
inches of space on one side of the trough, depend- 
ing upon the size of the lambs. The grain may be 
kept in large boxes made of matched lumber and 
having water-tight covers. If it is thought best to 
full feed while upon clover pasture, self-feeders may 
be put into the field. This practice, although not so 
satisfactory for gains as feeding in the trough, less- 
ens the labor and for that reason is sometimes 
more economical. 

Lambs are not likely to bloat on clover, unless 
they are turned in when the clover is wet, or when 
they are hungry from not having had sufficient feed 
previously. 

Alfalfa for Fall Pasture. — In those parts of the 
country where alfalfa can be grown with success, 
very profitable returns may be secured by pasturing 
lambs on the last cutting. Alfalfa grows more rap- 
idly than clover and it is cut when less mature. For 
these reasons it is possible to cut the crop four times 
during the year. Sometimes only the last, or fourth, 
cutting is pastured, and sometimes both third and 
fourth. If lambs are bought early in September, the 
third cutting would be used. Alfalfa and clover be- 
long to the same family and are similar in composi- 
tion, with a slight advantage in favor of alfalfa for 



FATTENING LAMBS IN THE FALL. 211 

its greater richness in protein. Lambs are extremely 
fond of alfalfa, eating it with great relish. Like 
clover it may be pastured during the fall without 
grain, and good gains can be made; but if an early 
winter market is sought, corn feeding while on alfalfa 
pasture should be practiced. Under average condi- 
tions lambs can be made to produce cheaper gains on 
alfalfa pasture and corn than on any other feed. Corn 
should be fed with moderation at first, say one-fourth 
of a pound each day, gradually increasing until from 




Woodland Farm Scene. Joseph E. Wing, Mechanicsburg, Ohio. 

three-fourths to one pound each is being fed. The 
most economical proportion of corn to feed with 
either alfalfa or clover depends entirely upon current 
prices. If corn is high it will be cheaper to feed none ; 
if comparatively low in price it will be economical to 
feed a fairly good ration of this grain. In that part of 
the corn belt west of the Missouri River, snow does 
not usually fall until some time in December, which 
makes it possible to pasture alfalfa until late, provid 



212 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



ing the feed is abundant. As with clover, overpas- 
turing should be avoided. 

Bloat. — Sheep are more likely to bloat on alfalfa 
than on clover. However, if they are first turned into 
the field toward the middle of the day, after they are 
partly filled with dry feed, and then left permanently 
in the field, there will be few, if any, losses. Lambs 
are much less greedy than old sheep, and seldom 






Sbeep in Alfalfa — Robert Taylor, Abbott, Neb. 



bloat if properly handled. Moving a flock from one 
field to another for water, or for any purpose, some- 
times starts fermentation of the alfalfa in the stom- 
ach, producing bloat ; therefore watering places 
should be provided in the field. With good alfalfa 
pasture, very cheap grains should be secured, and, 
as with clover, if they have not been heavily grain 
fed, they are in excellent condition to respond to 
grain feeding when put into the feed lot for winter. 
Rape for Fall Pasture. — Rape is a comparatively 
new forage plant in the United States. It has been 



FATTENING LAMBS IN THE FALL. .213 

grown in England for many years; later it found its 
way into some of the provinces of Canada, and from 
there was introduced into the United States not longer 
than fifteen or twenty years ago. It has been care- 
fully tested at the leading experiment stations and is 
so strongly recommended by them to stockmen for 
sheep and hogs, especially the former, that it is now 
being grown extensively in Northern states for fall 
pasture. 

The variety in favor is called Dwarf Essex. It has 
a large leaf surface with a comparatively small stem. 
which makes it desirable as a forage plant, and n 
grows luxuriantly, furnishing a large tonnage of feed 
to the acre. When the leaves are nibbled ofi they grow 
out again, if it is not past the growing season. It 
withstands frosts and is therefore a plant especially 
well adapted for late pasturage, remaining green until 
very late in the season — even after snowfall it will 
be uncovered by sheep and greedily consumed. While 
rather watery, it is nevertheless very palatable and 
nourishing. It is usually pastured, though it ma}' 
be cut and fed green upon the ground or in racks, if 
for any reason it is more convenient to do so ; but it 
is not a satisfactory hay plant, as it does not cure 
properly. 

If wanted for summer pasture for ewes suckling 
lambs, it should be sown in the spring any time after 
grass starts. It can be pastured the whole season if so 
desired, though it is customary to depend upon rape 
for fall pasture after other feed has become dry and 
parched, or perhaps entirely exhausted. When it is 
sown in the spring for pasture during the entire sea- 
son, the ground should be plowed, not deeply, thor- 
oughly harrowed to pulverize the soil, and, if lumpy, 
rolled. The seed may be sown broadcast — the 
method most in favor — at the rate of four to six 
pounds per acre, or in rows from 30 inches to three 



214 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

feet apart at the rate of two to three pounds per 
acre. The seed costs but four to six cents per pound 
and it is better to sow rather thickly than to have 
it thin on the ground. Within a few weeks after 
it has been sown, if the weather is favorable, it 
will cover the ground completely. It is a rank 
grower and ordinarily is not greatly troubled with 
weeds unless the ground is foul, when drilling in 
rows is preferable. In regions of insufficient rain- 
fall, too, the drill method is considered better; 
for, though this method requires more labor in 
cultivating the crop, it is possible to secure a 
larger growth, if the ground can be stirred and 
therefore kept in a more moist condition. Having 
such a large leaf surface, rape ,is a plant requiring 
a great deal of moisture. From six to eight weeks 
after the rape is sown it will be large enough to 
pasture, and if it has been sown broadcast, sheep 
will ordinarily begin at the outside of the field and 
strip off the leaves clean as they go, working gradu- 
ally toward the center. If drilled, they follow the 
rows. It is well to have two fields, one sown a few 
weeks later than the other, so that the flock may be 
pastured on the one first sown until the leaves are 
stripped off, then turned to the other where they 
may pasture for a period long enough to permit the 
leaves in the first to grow out again — thus alternat- 
ing between the fields during the whole season and 
having: an abundance of feed at all times. 

Sowing Rape After Wheat. — Land which has pro- 
duced a crop of wheat may be disked up and sown to 
rape, and, if the weather is not too dry, a good growth 
procured. Wheat-stubble ground sown to rape imme- 
diately after the crop is harvested will be ready to 
pasture in the early part of September and will furnish 
feed until in November, the time depending upon the 
number of sheep to the acre. While the period for 



FATTENING LAMBS IN THE FALL. 215 

pasturing- on wheat-stubble rape is comparatively- 
short, the crop pays well, inasmuch as the seed is in- 
expensive and the cost of preparing the ground but 
little. 

Sowing Rape in Oats. — Rape seed is sometimes 
mixed with the customary amount of seed oats used 
per acre and sown at the usual time for sowing oats. 
Since the rape starts more slowly, the oats grow seem- 
ingly unhindered, the rape remaining dwarfed un- 
til after the oat crop is removed, when, if fall rains 
are abundant, there may reasonably be expected a 
satisfactory growth. Some prefer to disk the oat 
stubble and sow in the same manner as was de- 
scribed for sowing wheat stubble. While this lat- 
ter method piits the crop of rape somewhat behind 
the former, a more even stand is secured and often 
a larger amount of feed grown to the acre. 

The Feeding Value of Rape. — To give the reader 
an accurate idea of the feeding value of rape, a few 
Experiment Station reports are here given. 

The first Station test in America was made in 
Ontario, Canada, where it was found that one acre 
of rape furnished sufficient feed to last twelve lambs 
two months. The gains made were large enough to 
make the rape bring $16.80 per acre. At another 
time, one acre pastured 27 head for a period of 25 
days, beginning October 17th, during which time the 
lambs gained 1.82 pounds per week each. At the 
Michigan Station, one acre pastured 9 lambs for a 
period of seven weeks, producing a gain of 202.5 
pounds. On the writer's farm, 343 lambs were pas- 
tured from August ist to October 15th on 17 acres 
of rape sown broadcast. These lambs averaged 60 
pounds each August ist, and by October 15th 100 
were ready to sell weighing 85 pounds each. The 
remainder were placed in the winter feed lot, where 
they made excellent gains. While on rape no grain 



2l6 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

was fed, but the lambs were allowed the run of a 
clover and timothy meadow. For the entire time an 
average gain of about eight pounds per month was 
made, which would be considered a fair average for 
gains on rape without grain. At this rate one acre 
of rape produced during the entire fall approxi- 
mately 400 pounds of mutton, worth 5 cents per 
pound. The Wisconsin Station reported a gain of 
13 pounds per month on rape and a full feed of 
grain, which would be considered high. An average 
gain on rape and one pound of grain each per day, 
approximately a full feed, would be 10 pounds per 
month, according to records made at that Station. 
The same Station reports the feeding value of one 
acre of rape from $14.48 to $20, depending largely 
upon the season. In view of the fact that there is 
no expense for harvesting and that the rape occu- 
pies the ground but a part of the season, the above 
records show a handsome profit from rape growing. 
Experiment Station records further show that the 
best gains are made when a field of grass is pro- 
vided, to be pastured along with the rape. The 
Wisconsin Station reports larger gains on rape and 
bluegrass pasture than on rape and oats, and con- 
siderably larger than on rape alone. The weekly 
gains were found to be 2.^2^ pounds each on rape 
alone, 2.8 on rape and oats, and 3.29 pounds on rape 
and bluegrass pasture. The latter would be consid- 
ered an exceptionally large gain, more than could be 
relied upon for average conditions. The dry grass 
is beneficial, largely because it has a tendency to 
check scours, which is usually rather prevalent 
among sheep pastured on rape alone. 

Grain With Rape. — To prepare lambs for an 
early market while on rape, it would be advisable 
to start with a light grain ration, not more than one- 
fourth of a pound each day, and increase this to one 



FATTENING LAMBS IN THE FALL. 217 

pound at the end of a month's feeding, this to be 
continued throughout the fall Under such feeding, 
6o-pound lambs September ist should weigh 85 
pounds each by November 15th, and at that time 
most of them should be sufficiently fat for market. 
Equal parts of oats and corn are excellent for this 
purpose, the oats being somewhat constipating. But 
if there is no particular reason for marketing in 
early winter, lambs can be profitably pastured on 
rape and grass. Without grass, a little prairie or 
timothy hay may be fed in the racks to check scours 
occasioned by the succulent rape. Lambs thus fed 
will be in excellent condition to go into the winter 
feed lot, where they will make rapid gains and be 
ready for market after about two months of grain 
feeding. 

Rape in Com. — During very recent years, rape 
has been sown in corn, with a grain drill the width 
of the corn row, at the time of the last cultivation, 
about five pounds of seed being sown to the acre. 
Without a driH one man may walk just ahead of the 
cultivator, scattering the seed in a single row, or he 
may ride. a horse and broadcast three or four rows 
at a time. If the corn is not heavy, and sufficient 
rain falls, a good growth may be secured. Even with 
conditions unfavorable, there will usually be enough 
of a growth to at least pay for the seed and labor. 

In the West, where it is customary to leave the 
stalks of corn standing, both rape and corn are con- 
sumed together, the sheep being turned into the 
field just as soon as the corn is ripe. They eat the 
rape and lower leaves of the stalks first, which 
leaves not only contain considerable nourishment 
but also have a tendency to check scours caused by 
the succulent rape. Later they eat the husks and 
lower ears, shelling the corn from the cob. Little is 
wasted, because whatever drops upon the ground 



2l8 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

is eaten before more is shelled. Older sheep that 
have been fed in this manner before, start shelling 
the corn earlier in the season than do lambs, for 
which reason it is a good practice to have a few old 
sheep in with the lambs to get them started as earl\ 
as possible. Sheep, run in corn in this way, will har- 
vest the entire crop, leaving only the stem of the 
stalk and the cobs attached. Toward the last it is 
well to run a float over the ground to break down 
those stalks which have ears beyond the reach of the 
sheep. Corn and rape make a good combination. 
An average crop of corn, with the rape, should fur- 
nish enough feed to last through the months of 
October and November, with 40 lambs feeding to 
the acre. Under favorable conditions a growth of 
20 pounds per lamb, or 800 pounds on the 40 head, 
would not be considered unreasonable. This would 
give a large revenue per acre with lambs worth, as 
they usually are, from four to six cents per pound. 
In feeding corn and rape in this way the field must 
be carefully watched toward the last to see that 
there is always sufficient feed. It is better' to re- 
move fattening lambs before the feed is exhausted, 
and replace them with stock sheep or breeding ewes 
to finish the crop, so that there will be no danger 
of a setback because of a scarcity of feed at the 
very last. Ordinarily a large portion of the lambs 
fed in this way are sufficiently fat to go on the mar- 
ket at the close of the period. Those which are not 
should be culled out and put in the feed lot to ])o 
finished. 

Bloating From Rape. — If a flock of breeding ewes, 
or other sheep accustomed to rape, should be turned 
into a field of such forage without having previousl}- 
been fairly well filled on other feed, several would 
probably die from bloat. Sheep are very fond of 
rape, and if hungry when first turned in are in- 



FATTENING LAMBS IN THE FALL. 219 

clined to eat too much. Losses from bloat are 
not likely to take place, however, if sheep are filled 
beforehand with grass or hay. Lambs are often dis- 
inclined to eat rape when first turned into the field. 
It is entirely new to them and they are likely to 
consume but little until the second day. Even 
should they begin to eat at once, as they are less 
greedy than old sheep they are not likely to bloat. 

Grazing Lambs on Oats and Peas. — In the San 
Luis Valley of Southern Colorado there has sud- 
denly sprung up what is known as the pea-fed lamb 
industry. Sheep "barons" buy lambs, mostly Mexi- 
cans, by the thousands and fatten them in immense 
fields of unharvested, though cured, oats and peas. 
It is claimed that one acre of ground will produce 
on an average $15.00 worth of lamb mutton at no 
expense whatever for harvesting the crop. 

Oats and peas are mixed together and drilled in 
rows from 12 to 16 inches apart at the rate of 30 to 
40 pounds of seed to the acre, this amount of seed 
costing not more than $i.oo._ As most of the land is 
seeded without being plowed, it is apparent that the 
cost of producing the crop is trivial. The crop, 
being planted in early spring, is ready to feed in the 
field as soon as the seeds ripen. It is customary to 
begin feeding the oats and peas some time in No- 
vember, running the lambs there until ready for 
market in January. They are turned in but a short 
time the first day, gradually becoming accustomed 
to the grain by an increased allotment of time on 
the feed. A gain of 6 to 8 pounds per month is con- 
sidered fair. 

While this system of lamb feeding is practiced in 
an irrigated country where the matured crop stands 
for several months uninjured because of little or no 
rainfall, it will no doubt be tried successfully on 
farms in humid climates, using 20 or more lambs to 
the acre instead of 10, and marketings in late fall. 



\ 



CHAPTER XXI. 

FATTENING LAMBS IN EARLY WINTER. 

The difficulties connected with sheep raising in 
parts of the West do not apply to sheep feeding in 
the winter. It is an easy matter to build fences for 
confining sheep for winter feeding, since it requires 
so small an enclosure. A fence may be made board- 
tight, or at least tight enough and high enough to 
keep out dogs and coyotes, with but very little ex- 
pense. 

The ideal shelter for fattening lambs is a shed 
open only on the south side, with a feed yard ad- 
joining on the same side. The open side should be 
provided with gates for confining the lambs within 
whenever desired. If in a region where drifting 
snowstorms are common, it is well to provide doors 
along the upper half of this open space, which may 
be let down. The shed should have a water-tight 
roof made of shingles, boards, or sheet iron if the 
latter is less expensive. While a board roof is not 
so tight as a shingle roof, it answers the purpose 
fairly well. The boards should run up and down 
with narrow strips nailed on for battening. 

Feeding in basement barns is unsatisfactory, be- 
cause such barns are too warm. Sheep are well pro- 
tected from cold weather by a heavy fleece of wool, 
and for that reason they should not be confined in 
buildings enclosed on all sides. If they are too 
warmly housed they suffer from the heat while in- 
side, and when allowed to go into the open air are 
very likely to contract "sniffles," in which condition 
good gains are out of the question. In dry climates, 

220 



FATTENING LAMBS IN EARLY WINTER. 



221 



where there is little rain and snowfall, lambs may 
be fed with good success in the open, provided the 
yards are protected from cold winds. It is needless 
to say that if lambs have been clipped, they will 
necessarily require warmer quarters. Including 
room for hay racks, each lamb should be allowed 
about five square feet of space. A shed 20 feet wide 
and 75 feet long would therefore be large enough for 
a car-load of 300 head. Less space is often given, 
but sheep do not do well when crowded. Western 




Sheep Feeding Yards. 1' 



•n, Jansen, Nebraska. 



feeders who provide shelter for sheep only during 
storms figure on tliree square feet of space for each 
lamb. 

Suitable hayracks should be placed within to ac- 
commodate the entire number at one time, as it is 
especially important to keep sheep dry. Each lamb 
will require from 8 to 12 inches of rack space, and 
all the racks should be placed in such a way as to 
make the feeding convenient. If the shed is built 



222 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING 

high enough to store hay above the sheep, it is better 
to make the flooring of matched Uimber to prevent 
the breath of the sheep from coming in contact with 
the hay above. Chutes may be constructed for 
throwing the hay down to the racks. If the shed is 
made sufficiently wide to store hay along the north 
half, it will be handier to feed and much less ex- 
pensive than with a floor above. In that case a rack 
may be placed along the north side, close up to the 
hay, running the full length of the shed. This will 




Range Yearlings. Peter Jansen, Jansen, Nobin-: 

not give room for the entire number, therefore other 
short racks should be placed at right angles at cer- 
tain intervals. These racks extending crosswise 
should not run the full width of the shed, unless it is 
desired to separate the sheep into small lots. The 
racks projecting at right angles should be made to 
accommodate sheep on both sides. With the hay 
stored under the north side of the shed, as de- 
scribed, it is possible to keep moving the racks 



FATTENING LAMBS IN EARLY WINTER. 22$ 

northward as the hay is fed out, thus giving the 
lambs more room as they grow larger. If the hay 
is in stacks on the north side of the shed, it will 
also be convenient to have the racks placed in the 
position described. Doors hinged at the bottom may 
be placed on the north side so that hay can be 
forked direct from the stack through the opening 
into racks. This arrangement is no less satisfac- 
tory if hay is drawn from a distance, in which case 
a team may be driven along the north side of the 
shed and the hay thrown into the rack, to be forked 
into the cross racks later. 

Straw should be used freely to insure a dry bed 
at all times, as foulness underneath not only is very 
detrimental to gains, but may bring on a disease 
called foot-rot. Many successful feeders permit the 
manure to accumulate under the shed during the 
winter, but always keep it well covered with 
straw. 

Water. — At convenient places in the shed, water- 
ing troughs with floats should be placed. If there 
is no windmill and supply tank on the premises 
and there are but a few sheep, water may be car- 
ried in buckets from a pump, or, better still, if the 
pump is close by, it may be conducted through 
wooden troughs made for the purpose. While 
sheep drink less water than do other farm animals, 
what is given them should be fresh and pure, and 
should be kept before them at all times, as they 
will not, under any consideration, make satisfactory 
gains without all the fresh water they wish to 
drink. 

Salt should be kept in separate troughs under the 
shed or in boxes nailed to the corners. If these 
boxes or troughs are permitted to become empty 
and remain so several days, when a fresh supply is 
put in the sheep will eat more than is good for 



224 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

them. An overfeed of salt makes any animal drink 
too much water for good gains. There should be 
salt in these boxes at all times, or it may be scat- 
tered at certain intervals in the empty grain troughs, 
care being taken that none is left to become mixed 
with the grain, as too much would then be con- 
sumed. 

The feed lot should extend the full length of the 
shed on the south side and should be three or four 
times the area of the shed to give plenty of room 
for the lambs to move about the grain troughs 
while eating. The feed lot should be well drained 
and kept as dry as possible. With gates along the 
south side of the shed, it is an easy matter to con- 
fine the lambs within while grain is being dis- 
tributed in the troughs outside ; and v/hile the lambs 
are eating grain, hay may be placed in the racks 
under cover. The grain troughs should be made as 
described in the previous chapter. They should 
stand about one foot from the ground on strong 
legs spreading outward at the bottom, so there 
will be no danger of their being pushed over, as 
sheep have been killed by grain troughs tipping 
over upon them. The grain may be stored in tight 
boxes with trap covers in the sloping roof, each box 
being large enough to hold a wagon load. It should 
be set in some convenient place in the yard and the 
grain distributed by the use of wooden buckets or, 
better still, coal-scuttles, the amount being care- 
fully regulated at each feed and scattered evenly 
from end to end of the troughs. 

The Self-feeder. — In order to save the labor of 
feeding twice a day in the troughs, it is some- 
times customary to provide what are called self- 
feeders, which are nothing more than boxes, large 
enough to hold half a wagon load or more of grain, 
placed on short legs and having openings on each 



FATTENING LAMBS IN EARLY WINTER. 225 

side below to permit the grain to work down into 
troughs constructed along the edge on both sides. 
It is arranged so that as fast as the grain is re- 
moved by the sheep from the trough more will 
work down from above. While the self-feeder is a 
labor-saving device, it is doubtful if it is an 
economical method of feeding. Two experiment 
stations have made tests comparing gains made 
by the use of the self-feeder and those made by 
troughs where grain is supplied in the usual way. 
In both instances larger and more economical gains 
were made by regular and systematic feeding in 
troughs. The objection to the self-feeder lies in 
the fact that it is impossible to keep the sheep from 
mussing the grain. Sheep are naturally delicate in 
their habits of eating, and they will not eat with 
the same relish grain which has been mussed over 
by others. In sections of the country where grain 
is cheap and labor high, it is quite possible that a 
self-feeder well made will give satisfaction. It 
should be so arranged that the grain will work- 
down slowly, and yet furnish feed at all times. It is 
needless to say that lambs which are to go on the 
self-feeder must first be fed in the trough and grad- 
ually led up to a full feed. Even then they are 
likely to overeat on corn unless oats, bran or wheat 
screenings form a large part of the ration. 

Winter Rations. — Assuming first that the 
lambs have been fed grain on fall pasture and 
that it is desired to finish them for market as soon 
as possible, it would be well to supply, the first day 
in the feed lot, as much grain as they have been 
receiving on pasture, increasing the amount to a 
full feed, which would be approximately i^ 
pounds per head. The character of the grain ration 
will depend upon the character of the roughness, 
and the latter will in all probability be that which 



226 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

is most available on the farm. Much of the rough- 
ness grown on the average farm is a by-product, 
as it were, from the growing of grain. This should 
be utilized to the best advantage, which makes it 
desirable to adapt the grain ration to this rough- 
ness. Should it consist of cornstalks (stover) and 
oat straw, both of them deficient in protein, the 
grain ration must be correspondingly rich in this 
nutrient. Corn alone would be unsatisfactory with 
such roughness, because it is also deficient in pro- 
tein. But corn, w^herever it can be grown success- 
fully, is the cheapest grain, at least for a foodstuff 
so efficient as a fat producer and at the same time 
so wonderfully relished by sheep as well as by cat- 
tle. It is therefore advisable to feed as large a pro- 
portion of this grain as possible, so long as suffi- 
cient protein can be supplied from other sources. 
As previously mentioned, our most concentrated 
protein foods for sheep feeding are ground oil cake 
(linseed meal), cottonseed meal, and gluten meal. 
Any one of these foods may be mixed with shelled 
corn and but little will be required to supply the 
protein necessary. For most profitable feeding, the 
proportion of protein food will depend upon the 
market price of such foods as well as of corn. 
Should corn be cheap and these commercial foods 
comparatively high in price, it would be better 
economy to use a larger proportion of corn than 
would be used if the reverse were true. Speaking 
in approximate terms, high-priced corn should be 
mixed with low-priced ground oil cake, cottonseed 
meal, or gluten meal, in the proportion of four 
parts of corn by weight to one of the protein con- 
centrate. Low-priced corn should be mixed with 
the high-priced protein concentrate in the propor- 
tion of nine pounds of corn to one of ground oil 
cake, or other protein concentrate. In the former 



FATTENING LAMBS IN EARLY WINTER. ' 227 

case, we are therefore making corn eighty per cent 
of the grain ration ; in the latter, ninety per cent. 
With average prices for both, something like 
thirty-five cents per bushel for corn and twenty- 
five dollars per ton for oil cake and the other pro- 
tein foods, it would be well to mix eighty-five 
pounds of corn with fifteen pounds of the protein 
food. From these commercial protein foods the 
feeder will be justified in selecting that which can 
be purchased at the lowest price per pound. In 
one hundred pounds of each of these foodstuffs, we 
have in cottonseed meal, as shown by the table in 
the appendix, thirty-two pounds of digestible pro- 
tein ; in new process oil cake, twenty-eight pounds ; 
and in gluten meal, twenty-four pounds. Although 
the cottonseed meal is richer in protein, it is some- 
what less palatable to lambs than oil cake and 
more often inferior in quality, and because of this 
inferiority may bring on sickness. Gluten meal, 
while containing a little less protein than oil cake, 
is enough richer in fat to even it in value per ten. 

If wheat bran could be purchased at a price not 
more than one-half that of oil cake, it could be 
profitably used. Twic5 as much bran as oil cake 
should be used, because it contains but half the per 
cent of protein. Canadian peas or cowpeas are 
even better than bran, as they furnish from 30 per 
cent to 50 per cent more protein and less crude 
fiber, which latter is largely inert matter. Soy 
beans are relished and are quite as efiicient as oil 
cake in supplying protein. 

Protein Roughage. — With clover hay success- 
fully grown in the East and Middle West, cowpea 
hay in the South, and alfalfa in the West, it is 
usually possible to produce protein on the farm 
cheaper than it can be purchased on the market in 
the so-called commercial protein foods. Were one- 



228 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING, 

half the roughness to consist of any of these for- 
age plants, it would be necessary to purchase not 
more than half the amount of the commercial pro- 
tein foods previously recommended. Supposing 
such protein roughness available, it will be well to 
leave out either the oat straw or cornstalks, or 
one-half of each. Of the two, the latter is much 
more valuable for sheep, especially when well cured 
in the shock ; if shredded, more will be consumed, 
and the refuse may be used for bedding. Should 
the roughness consist entirely of one or more of the 
legumes, corn alone may be fed. 

Timothy, prairie hay and sorghum hay are similar 
in feeding value to corn stover, and when any of 
these is used as roughness for sheep, the commer- 
cial protein food should be mixed with corn, as 
has been recommended when the roughness con- 
sists of corn stover or oat straw. None of these 
forage plants can take the place of clover, alfalfa 
or cowpea hay. 

Millet hay is similar in feeding value to sorghum, 
etc., for sheep. It is likely, however, to induce 
scours unless cut at the right time, and is not for 
that reason considered a first class roughness for 
sheep. 

Corn Silage. — On farms where this may be had, 
it is fed to lambs in limited quantity with satis- 
factory results. Owing to the fact that this food 
contains about 80 per cent of water — four times as 
much as clover hay — it is necessary to supply cor- 
respondingly more for a day's allowance. Each 
lamb should have about two pounds of corn silage 
and one-half a pound of dry hay per day for rough- 
ness. Because of its succulence, silage keeps the 
intestinal tract in a healthy condition and is espe- 
cially desirable for sheep during the early part of 
the fattening period. Being very filling, it makes 



'. FATTENING LAMBS IN EARLY WINTER. 229 

less room for grain at the time, but increases the 
digestive capacity of the animal for the consump- 
tion of more feed later. The presence of corn in 
silage allows a decrease in the proportion of shelled 
corn fed. 

Roots, including turnips, rutabagas, mangel- 
wurzels and sugar-beets, are extensively grown in 
England and Canada for sheep feeding. When 
sliced and mixed with grain, they are very much 
relished and, like silage, will keep the sheep in a 
thrifty condition. Roots contain from 85 to 90 per 
cent water, and to furnish the same amount of dry 
matter that would be found in silage it is necessary 
to feed a somewhat larger quantity. They contain 
more protein than does silage, however, which 
makes it unnecessary to feed as much protein foods 
in the grain ration. Nevertheless, as with fatten- 
ing cattle, roots are not economical to feed market 
sheep in the West, where farms are large and help 
is high priced. The growing of roots requires the 
expenditure of a great deal of labor, and, although 
they yield well, the cost- of production makes 
silage preferable where corn is extensively grown. 

Sugar-beet pulp is an available foodstuff in the 
vicinity of beet sugar factories. In the West it 
may be purchased at a price varying from 25 cent.^ 
to $1 per ton. In view of its excessive bulk for 
shipment and its low price at the factory, it is ad- 
visable to feed pulp only at points near where it is 
made. At the Utah Experiment Station lambs were 
fed pulp and alfalfa in comparison with grain and 
alfalfa. With grain at 60 cents per hundred and 
alfalfa $4 per ton, pulp proved to be worth $1.86 
per ton. When 10.14 pounds of pulp were fed with 
4^3 pounds of alfalfa and 1.56 pounds of grain, the 
pulp proved to be worth $3.38 per ton. This would 
indicate that pulp is most valuable when fed in coa- 



230 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

nection with grain. In this experiment the high 
returns for pulp are due in part to the profits on the 
lambs. A conservative estimate places the valua- 
tion of one ton of pulp equivalent to" that of 200 
pounds of corn. This seems reasonable because one 
ton of pulp contains only 200 pounds of dry mat- 
ter. In comparison with sugar-beets, the Colorado 
Experiment Station concludes that when pulp and 
beets are each fed with alfalfa hay, the pulp is 
worth $1.46 per ton if the beets are valued at $4 per 
ton. With grain fed in addition, the beets gave a 
slightly higher comparative valuation. The Colo- 
rado Station advises the use of pulp if it can be 
delivered at the yards for $1.50 per ton. 

Pulp has a laxative effect upon the animal, for 
which reason results are better when it is fed in 
connection with hay or straw. Lambs should not 
be given more than one pound per day at first, 
which amount may be gradually increased to eight 
or ten pounds. With ten pounds of pulp per day, 
however, large gains are out of the question be- 
cause of the excess of water, which makes it ex- 
tremely bulky. If a large quantity is to be fed at 
any time, it should be given early in the feeding 
period. When fed in fairly liberal amounts, it is 
conducive to a good growth of frame and at the 
same time puts the animal in good thrift for heavier 
grain feeding in the future; and this later grain 
feeding hardens up the flesh, which has a tendency 
to be 50ft when made on pulp. 

Dried beet pulp and dried molasses-beet pulp are 
now being sold on the market for feeding purposes. 
Both have recently been tested by the Michigan 
Station, where it was found that "they are pos- 
sessed of feeding values comparing very favorably 
with corn." The results are not surprising inas- 
much as such pulp contains about the same per- 



FATTENING LAMBS IN EARLY WINTER. 23I 

centage of dry matter as corn and is also similar in 
the quantity of other nutrients contained. It would 
seem, however, that pulp would be somewhat in- 
ferior to corn, in that it contains more crude fiber. 
In the test, one ration consisted of corn four 
pounds, bran two pounds, linseed meal one pound, 
and clover hay, while the other contained the same 
foods with four pounds of dried pulp substituted 
for four pounds of corn. The largest and cheapest 
gains were made by feeding both corn and dried 
pulp in the proportion, corn four pounds, bran two 
pounds, linseed meal one pound, beet pulp seven 
pounds, and clover hay. 

Wheat and rye straw could be used for sheep if 
no other roughness were at hand. Such material, 
however, contains but little nutriment, and sheep, 
like cattle, will eat only enough to satisfy the crav- 
ing for bulk. With such roughness, considerably 
more grain will be consumed for a given increase 
in weight. With straw the grain ration should con- 
sist of not less than 20 per cent oil meal, or its 
'equivalent in the shape of some other protein food, 
supposing the remainder of the grain ration is corn. 
Neither wheat nor rye straAV is equal in feeding 
value to oat straw. 

With any of the forms of roughness mentioned 
and with a liberal allowance of suitable grain to 
go with whatever roughness is fed, lambs which 
have previously been fed grain on fall pasture 
should be ready for market after from four to eight 
weeks of feeding in the lot. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

FATTENING RANGE LAMBS OR NATIVES 

WHICH HAVE NOT HAD GRAIN 

ON PASTURE. 

There are years when grass or other forage is 
abundant and grain is comparatively high in price. 
.Under these circumstances the farmer would be 
justified in making all the mutton possible from 
grass, rather than to allow any surplus to waste be- 
cause of grain feeding. Obviously, smaller gains 
would be secured under such a system, and the 
lambs would close the pasture season in only fair 
flesh. 

Quantity of Feed. — With nati\e grass lambs or 
with lambs fresh from the range country, it would 
not be advisable to begin heavy grain feeding when 
first placed in the dry lot, as an abrupt change is 
not conducive to the best health nor to the best 
future gains with any class of animals. Cured hay 
of good quality can hardly take the place of pasture, 
because it is not so well relished and therefore less 
is consumed. Then, too, as the season advances and 
the temperature gradually grows lower, there is 
needed something more concentrated to keep up 
animal heat and otherwise maintain the body. A 
change, therefore, from pasture to hay would be 
more abrupt, than from pasture to hay and a little 
grain. It would not be excessive to start lambs on 
one-fourth of a pound of grain each per day. nor 
would it be crowding too hard to increase this 
amount one-fourth of a pound each succeeding 

232 



FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 



233 





Range Scenes Near Forbes, Wyoming, 



234 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

week. At this rate they will be consuming one 
pound each during the fourth week. This is tak- 
ing it for granted that it is desired to. get such 
lambs ready for market as soon as possible. After 
one pound per day has been reached the further 
increase should be more gradual. A feed of 
one and one-half pounds of grain per day at the 
end of seven weeks would be sufificient to insure 
large gains and a comparatively short feeding 
period. If hay or other roughness is comparatively 
cheap, and it seems expedient to make more mut- 
ton from such feed and less 'from grain, the fatten- 
ing may go forth more slowly, postponing the time 
of marketing accordingly. The grain ration could 
then start with one-eighth pound each per day, in- 
creasing this one-eighth of a pound per week, in- 
stead of one-fourth, until at the end of seven weeks 
each lamb is receiving one pound per day. The 
grain ration could be limited to this amount, which 
limitation would insure a larger consumption of 
roughness and correspondingly less grain. With 
such a svstem the lambs would be marketed some 
time during the months of ]\Iarch or April, when, 
as the market reports will show, prices are usually 
good. 

Character of the Ration. — Although this system 
of lamb feeding requires a longer period, it is never- 
theless profitable when grain is high priced, because 
more mutton may be made from inexpensive mate- 
rial. With such a system it is possible to make a 
liberal use of cornstalks — a fodder which is often 
wasted because of the prevalent notion that such 
material is too bulky and contains too little nourish- 
• ment to*make it worth saving for sheep. Since corn 
stover is a by-product from the growing of an ex- 
tensive acreage of corn and yields abundantly per 
acre, the supply is large and it is accordingly a 



FATTENING RANGE LAiMBS. 235 

cheap fodder. There is present, however, in well- 
cured corn stover a considerable amount of nutri- 
tive materia!, useful for sheep as well as cattle, 
though less completely consumed by the former; 
but this can be properly conserved and utilized only 
when the stalks are cut just as soon as the ears 
are ripe, and cured in the shock — or put in the silo 
a few' days earlier. 

Shock Corn. — With the system of light grain- 
feeding described, it is possible to feed in the stalk 
all the grain that is fed, at least for a period of sev- 
eral weeks. Corn in the stalk is cheaper than 
shelled corn, because the cost of both husking and 
shelling is saved. In feeding corn fodder to lambs, 
the entire stalk with ear attached is placed in a 
suitable rack, which is built with a tight bottom 
and made rather narrow^ so that all the fodder can 
be reached from both sides. Slats are nailed up 
and down, allowing just enough room between for 
each lamb to insert its head. This prevents the 
stalks from being pulled out and trampled under 
foot. Enough fodder is put in the racks each morn- 
ing to furnish the amount of grain recommended 
for a day's allowance. It is difficult to be entirely 
exact with the grain, but by feeding a certain num- 
ber of bundles, increasing this number as desired, 
sufficient accuracy for practical purposes can be 
had. Bundles made by modern corn harvesters are 
quite uniform in size, and it is a very easy matter 
to determine the proportion of grain to stalk by 
husking out a few bundles and measuring the ears. 
The lambs not only shell ofif the corn from the cob, 
but also eat ihe leaves and upper part of the stalk. 
The butts, or lower third of the stalk, contain but 
little nourishment and should be thrown out each 
day. Corn fed in this way, with all the hay that 
will be consumed (which may be either clover. 



236 PROFITx\BLE STOCK FEEDING. 

alfalfa or cowpea hay), will give the largest profits 
obtainable, because little labor has been expended 
upon the product fed. A large quantity of the pro- 
tein-rich roughness will be consumed during the 
early stages of feeding, much of which is later re- 
placed by a gradually irfcreased amount of the fod- 
der to furnish more grain. 

At no time is it really necessary to purchase con- 
centrated protein foods, because the nitrogenous 
hay will furnish a sufificiency of this nutrient. Dur- 
ing the last thirty days, rather than feed all the 
corn in the shape of fodder, under which circum- 
stances one pound or more of corn and an equal 
weight of stalk to each lamb might cause a waste 
■of some stalks, it would not be unwise to feed a 
little shelled corn separately, mixing with it about 
ten per cent of ground oil cake, or other protein 
concentrate. The wisdom of this will depend 
largely upon the relative cost of the corn and the 
protein concentrate. If oil meal is more than 
double the price of corn, its use would add but little 
if any to the profits. 

Shredding corn stover is commonly practiced in 
the Eastern States. The principal advantages from 
shredding the corn stover are: (i) that a little more 
of the stalk is, consumed than though it were left 
uncut, and (2) the waste material is in better shape 
to use for bedding. If for any reason it is desired 
to feed corn and the stalk in a proportion different 
from the way it grows, husking must necessarily be 
done. Th the West, where corn-stalks are very 
cheap, shredding is hardly economical because it 
adds so much to the cost of the original product. 
Even in the Eastern States it is probably true that 
wherever corn is fed on the stalk, cheaper gains are 
secured than when the same is husked and the stalks 
shredded. 



FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 237 

Feeding Without Corn-stalks. — Assuming that 
the feeding operations are to be carried on at a 
point where corn in the stalk is not on hand, it 
would be desirable to feed some prairie hay, cane 
or oat straw with alfalfa, or with clover or cow- 
pea hay. As the corn, which is more commonly 
shelled but which may be fed on the cob, is in- 
creased, there would necessarily be a correspond- 
ing decrease in the roughness consumed; and the 
prairie hay, or other such roughness, is the part 
which should be diminished, in order that, finally, 
when a large amount of corn is being consumed, the 
roughness may consist almost entirely of the clover, 
alfalfa or cowpea hay. With such roughness no 
protein concentrate need be fed with corn. 

Feeding Without a Protein Roughness. — If no 
one of the three forms of nitrogenous roughness is 
available, it Avould be necessary to purchase a pro- 
tein concentrate, such as ground oil cake, gluten or 
cottonseed meal, mixing the same with corn, the 
latter constituting from 80 to 90 per cent of the 
ration. In this case whatever roughness is on hand 
would be fed. Too much emphasis, however, can- 
not be given to the statement that an economical 
system of lamb feeding necessitates either the grow- 
ing of clover, alfalfa or cowpea hay, or the purchase 
of the same, should they be obtainable at moderate 
prices. If the farm is limited in size, it is ordinarily 
more profitable to devote the entire area to a crop 
like alfalfa, buying all the corn fed, rather than to 
purchase hay from a distance at the usual prices or 
do without it. 

Clipping Fat Lambs. — If some of the lambs fed as 
described are not ready for market until the warm 
weather of late March or April comes, it is often 
advisable to clip off the wool, as lambs thickly cov- 
ered with a fleece cannot do well in warm weather. 



238 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Clipped lambs undersell the nnclipped practically 
the price of the wool, so nothing is gained more 
than comfort for the lambs and better gaining 
capacity. 

When to Sell. — Formerly the market called for 
large lambs. Now it is the moderate-sized, round 
and plump 80 to 90-pound lamb which tops the 
market. Lambs should be sold just as soon as they 
are fat, when the back and region about the tail 
seem well covered. About 100 good-sized lambs 
will fill a single deck car. 

Yearling Sheep. — A discussion of lamb feeding 
logically precedes that of yearlings, and the details 
of lamb feeding have been fully described, be- 
cause, under normal conditions, it is more profit- 
able than feeding older sheep. After a sheep reaches 
the age of twelve months and is no longer a lamb in 
the usual sense of the term, its market value per 
pound rapidly declines. Yearlings sell on an aver- 
age about $1.00 per hundred below lambs. The 
consumer discriminates more in favor of young 
mutton than young beef or pork, no doubt because 
lamb mutton possesses in a marked degree a 
sweeter flavor and is much more tender than older 
mutton. 

Not only do lambs command a higher figure on 
the market, but they also make better use of feed. 
This seems reasonable, inasmuch as all young 
animals require less food for body maintenance, 
utilizing a larger proportion of the food given them 
for actual body increase. This may be corroborated 
by presenting figures or data secured by experi- 
ment stations. The average of two experiments at 
the Iowa Station reveals the following: 

Lambs. Yearlings. 

Average daily gain 38 lb. .26 lb. 

Dry matter per lb. of gain. 8.92 lbs. 12.84 lbs. 

Cost per 1 lb. gain 3.61 cents. 5.33 cents. 



FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 239 

Here was 47 per cent more food consumed for 
each pound of increase in weight by the yearlings 
than by the lambs at a cost of 47 per cent more for 
producing these gains. In an experiment con- 
ducted at the Kansas Station in 1900, yearlings re- 
quired 46 per cent more food for each pound of 
gain. At the Montana Experiment Station the dif- 
ference in favor of lambs with respect to cost of 
gains was 40 per cent. This gives us strong evi- 
dence in favor of lamb feeding for profitable re- 
turns. Should the market on feeder sheep show an 
unusually wide margin between the cost of lambs 
and of yearlings or two-year-old feeders, one would 
be justified in buying older sheep. A difBculty in 
buying such sheep is that a few old sheep with 
poor teeth may be mixed with yearlings and not 
detected. Feeder lambs, having never been sheared, 
show wool of an uneven appearance, which makes 
it easy to detect in the riock yearlings or old sheep. 

In feeding yearling sheep or anything older, the 
same general principles are to be kept in mind as 
have been pointed out in previous pages on lamb 
feeding. Somewhat larger daily rations are re- 
quired, but the feeding period is shortened because 
the increase is largely fat, rather than growth 
combined with fat as in the case of the lamb. Con- 
cerning the character of the ration, it seems reason- 
able to suppose that sheep more tlian 12 months old 
require a little less protein than that recommended 
for lambs. It is needless to say that such sheep, 
being larger in size, also require more shed room 
and rack space than has been suggested for lambs. 
Other than this, whatever has been said concerning 
methods of lamb feeding are applicable to older 
sheep. 

Sheep Feeding as Conducted on a Large Scale in 
the Semiarid West. — In Colorado, Western Ne- 



240 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

braska and adjoining territory, sheep feeding is done 
by a limited few on an extensive scale. -Large bands 
are driven or shipped from the range lands of the 
West and Southwest to points where alfalfa is 
grown in abundance. There the sheep are confined 
in corrals which are divided into lots to accomnio-- 
date from 400 to 500 sheep, a larger number in one 
lot causing confusion in feeding. No shelter is pro- 
vided, as rain or snowstorms are infrequent, and 
sheep do not ordinarily suffer from cold weather, 
because of their wool. A large roof area would be 
required to house a band of 10,000 sheep in time of 
storm and the expense of providing such protection 
would be greater than any possible advantage from 
its temporary use. If sheep are closely quartered 
during an occasional storm, they are certain to be- 
come overheated, contracting colds when turned 
into the open lot. Everything considered, the most 
rational system in the semiarid West is open-lot 
feeding with only windbreaks for protection. 

In constructing a sheep feeding plant, where sev- 
eral thousand are to be fed, it is important to have 
the yards arranged so as to minimize the labor of 
feeding. An excellent plan is to have the yards 
in two rows with a lane or driveway between. In 
each lot are placed rows of grain troughs sufficient 
to accommodate at one time the entire number in 
the lot. Between each two enclosures is a hay yard 
about 12 feet wide, extending the width of the lot 
If hay is stacked within these narrow yards, it may 
be thrown off each night and morning and scattered 
along the fence, where the sheep reach through to 
eat. This fence has a 7-inch space between the first 
and second boards — just large enough for a sheep 
to introduce its head. About one foot of rack or 
trough room is allowed each sheep. If it is not 
convenient to stack alfalfa in these yards they are 
made wide enough to permit a load of hay to be 



FATTENING RANGE LAMBS. 24I 

drawn through and scattered along each side. 

At the extreme end of each hay lot, gates are pro- 
vided for transferring the sheep from one lot to 
another during grain feeding, as it is always best 
to clear the yard of sheep while grain is being dis- 
tributed in the troughs. This is accomplished by 
providing one extra lot at the end of each row of 
lots. The feeding each morning and night begins 
by driving into the vacant end-lot with a load of 
corn. Two men, by the use of wooden buckets or 
coal scuttles, distribute the grain, while the third 
on the wagon drives and fills the buckets. \Micn 
the troughs are filled, the gate between this and the 
second lot is opened and the sheep rush through, 
leaving the second lot vacant for the distribution of 
grain. This is continued until all are fed. The 
next meal time, feeding begins on the other end of 
the row, and each lot is moved in the direction op- 
posite that of the previous feeding. 

Water troughs are placed along the side next 
the main driveway. Some feeders prefer hand 
pumps to windmills, because water may be pumped 
as needed, whereas if it stands in the troughs it 
sometimes becomes ice cold and sheep do not 
always drink as much as they should. Then, too, 
it may be pumped during the middle of the day 
when the attendants are not busy feeding. Salt 
placed in troughs, which are never allowed to be- 
come empty, is the method by which this mineral 
is usually furnished. With a feeding plant such 
as has been described, four men can care for 10,000 
head of sheep. If the markers are favorable, small 
fortunes are sometimes made in one year by oper- 
ating such an extensive plant ; on the other hand, 
if there comes a slump in prices, the loss may be 
heavy. 



242 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 




FATTENING RANGE LAMBS, 243 

Barley for Lambs.— This grain is commonly 
grown in sections not well adapted for corn grow- 
ing, where it takes the place of corn in the grain 
ration. Like corn, it is a starchy food, but con- 
tains a somewhat higher per cent of protein, more 
crude fiber and less fat. From its composition it 
wo'dd seem reasonable to think that the hulless 
varieties of barley would be quite as good as corn 
pound for pound. Common barley contains con- 
siderable crude fiber because of the hull, and for 
that reason is not quite as valuable as corn for feed- 
ing purposes. Experiment station tests indicate 
that about 5 per cent more barley than corn is re- 
quired for one pound of gain, which means by 
weight, and not by the bushel. Were barley worth 
40 cents per bushel, corn would be worth about 60 
cents per bushel. Barley should be fed unground 
to sheep, and supplemented by other foods, as has 
been described for corn. 

Emmer, commonly called speltz in America, is 
of comparatively recent introduction. It seems to 
stand dry weather better than corn, which makes 
it a crop worthy of consideration in the semiarid 
West. Its chemical composition is strikingly simi- 
lar to barley, the principal difference bemg its 
greater crude fiber content. As it ordinarily comes 
from the thresher it contains more hull than does 
barley, wdiich explains the higher percentage of 
crude fiber. As yet but few experiment station tests 
have been made with emmer fed in comparison 
with barley. The results of two trials made at 
the South Dakota Experiment Station show that 
about one-third larger gains w^ere secured from 
feeding sheep a given weight of barley than from 
emmer, and that either corn or barley mixed w"ith 
emmer is better than this grain alone. At the Colo- 
rado Experiment Station, where these grains were 



244 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

fed with alfalfa, emmer gave as good returns pound 
for pound as corn, and 13 per cent better than bar- 
ley. It is probable that in Colorado, where the 
atmosphere is very dry, the emmer might have 
shelled more than the barley. Before a reliable 
comparison can be made, further trials must be 
conducted. 

Wheat may be fed successfully to sheep, and 
although the kernels are small and hard, it may be 
fed unground to this class of animals. From tests 
made, wheat is the equivalent of corn, pound for 
pound. If the ration lacks protein it is reasonable 
to suppose that slightly better results would come 
from wheat feeding, but if there is an abundance 
of protein the gains from corn would certainly be 
as great. Wheat may be profitably fed when its 
price per hundred is no greater than corn. 

Wheat screenings, if of good quality, are equal to 
corn for sheep, but greatly inferior if of low grade. 
In the neighborhood of elevators and flour-mills, 
good screenings may often be had at a price below 
corn. 

Oats are relished by sheep and when they may 
be had at a price per hundred no greater than corn, 
they should form at least a part of the grain 
ration. Oats contain the digestible nutrients in 
a proportion very close to requirements for lambs. 
Should the grain ration consist entirely of oats, 
then somewhat less roughness would be consumed, 
because of the hull. If oats are fed with timothy 
or prairie hay, not more than half the oil-cake 
recommended for corn feeding will be required. 
Even if oats should be slightly higher than corn 
per hundred, it might pay to make them one-fourth 
to one-third the grain ration for the sake of va- 
riety, because variety has a tendency to stimulate 
the appetite, providing the foods are palatable. If, 



FATTENING LAMBS IN THE FALL. 245 

however, by furnishing a variety of foodstufifs the 
expense is considerably increased, it is not practi- 
cable. 

Rye is similar to wheat in composition, but is 
less palatable. Feeding tests tend to show that 
rye is from 5 to 10 per cent below wheat in value. 
This grain should be used as has been suggested 
for corn. Like other grains, it need not be ground 
for sheep. 

Experiment Station Tests with Lambs. — Lamb 
feeding records, as reported by several state ex- 
periment stations, are published on the two follow- 
ing pages, in order that the reader may get a better 
idea of what constitutes a day's ration for lambs 
of different weights ; also the amount of grain and 
hay required to produce one pound of gain ; and 
the cost of this gain under varying conditions, as 
found in different states, primarily with reference 
to food prices. The last column, showing the aver- 
ages for all the tests given, should be a conserva- 
tive estimate of what may be expected from an 
average lamb under average conditions. 



246 



CROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 









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CHAPTER XXIII. 

PARASITES IN SHEEP. 

It is the history of sheep husbandry everywhere 
within moist latitudes that evil days befall the 
flock because of infection from internal parasites. 
These parasites, living within the digestive tract 
of the sheep, are expelled when mature and filled 
with eggs. The germs are thus communicated to 
the grass and are taken in by the lambs and young 
sheep, which become in turn infected. The older 
sheep may have harbored these parasites without 
noticeable injury to themselves, but the lambs suf- 
fer much more and very often succumb and die. 
Thousands of flocks all through the corn belt have 
been started with high hopes, have thriven for a 
time, then have become diseased, the_ owners dis- 
couraged and the sheep dispersed. This is not 
necessary. Parasitic diseases are hard to cure but 
comparatively easy to prevent. A brief study of 
the nature of the more important parasites likely 
to afifect sheep will be helpful. 

The stomach-worm, Strongylus contortus, is a 
small hair-like worm that inhabits the fourth 
stomach of sheep and lambs. It may readily be 
found there, just at the beginning of the intestine, 
sometimes in small numbers and sometimes in 
multitudes. These little worms do great damage. 
They cause the diseases called "paper skin," "black 
scours," and in the West Iambs so afflicted are 
called "locoed." The presence of a few of these 
worms may not create great harm, again a com- 

248 



PARASITES IN SHEEP. 249 

paratively small number of them will causf, the 
death of the lamb. In the. older sheep they are 
not so noticeable. Very often a lot of lambs re- 
ceived in the feed lot are found to be afflicted with 
scours that cannot be attributed to wrong feed- 
ing. When this is the case the owner should at 
once dissect one of the lambs, searching for this 
worm, which, if found in force, will explain his 
trouble. The remedy is a treatment of gasoline, 
given after fasting for at least sixteen hours, the 
dose for a lamb six months old being three tea- 
spoonfuls in a quarter of a glass of sweet milk, well 
shaken together. The lambs should be treated three 
times in succession, twenty-four hours apart. Creo- 
sote is also advised, and there are other remedies, 
which we will not at present concern ourselves with, 
the object being to seek the cause and prevention, a 
far more profitable act. 

It must be borne in mind that the germs of in- 
fection are carried over winter in the bodies of the 
ewes. When v^arm weather comes the germs are 
then laid upon the ground and through the medium 
of short, tender grass they find access to the lambs. 
In dry regions they reach the lambs through stag- 
nant drinking pools, through this source come 
the ''loco" and '"Lombriz" of New Mexico, Texas 
and the dry range country. 

When lambs are born early, say in March, and 
with their mothers are well nourished until grass 
comes in spring, they will soon be ready to wean, 
when they may be separated from the ewes and put 
on fresh pasture, with no old sheep with them. 
Clean lambs on clean pasture will never become 
infected and w'ill remain clean and profitable. 

Before the lambs are weaned the ewes may be 
shifted often from 'one pasture to another and the 
drinkine water furnished in troughs or other un- 



250 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDINa 

contaminated source. This lessens the liability of 
infection. 

Ewes and lambs may be kept until weaning time 
on sowed pastures of rye, oats, barley or rape, or 
a mixture of these. There is little liability to in- 
fection from grazing these coarser sowed crops, 
as the lambs hardly bite so close to the ground. In 
this case, however, small grassy lots much fre- 
quented by the flock must be avoided, as they are 
poison spots to young lambs. 

It should be the steadfast aim of the shepherd 
to avoid having the lambs graze after their moth- 
ers, and as soon as they are weaned they mvist be 
removed to fresh ground, where old sheep have not 
grazed that year. It is not probable that infection 
remains over winter in northern latitudes in the 
pasture. 

To lessen the danger of lambs becoming dis- 
eased, it is a safe and profitable plan to hasten 
their maturity with corn fed while the lambs are 
yet sucking their mothers. Thus in June a whole 
flock of lambs may be made to average a weight 
of eighty pounds, when they will command a good 
price and may as well be sent to market. Then 
there is no danger during the summer period for 
these lambs. Of course, the shepherd desires to 
retain his best ewe lambs to add to the flock, and 
they must be cared for as indicated, separated from 
their mothers and grazed on safe pasture. 

To breed ewes before they are sixteen or eighteen 
months old is to invite the gathering of parasites, 
as it weakens the resisting power of the young 
ewes and makes them the more ready host for the 
destroying worms. 

The nodular disease of the intestines is almost 
as serious a plague as the stomach-worm. It is a 
disease generally of slow progression, and, unlike 



PARASITES IN SHEEP. 25 1 

the Stomach-worm, is hard, if not impossible, to 
reach with medicine. The nodular disease causes 
little tumors upon the intestines, commonly called 
"knotty guts," which unfit the intestines for 
sausage casings. Unfortunately this is the least 
of the harm that they do. The digestion and as- 
similation is seriously affected, the sheep eats 
ravenously but gets thin and in the end dies. For- 
tunately it is not so swift or rapidly spread as the 
work of the stomach-worm. 

Seeing that medicine can do little or nothing 
for the nodular disease, the course is one of pre- 
vention, and measures should include the method 
of pasturing just outlined to prevent the increase 
of stomach-worms and the sale of infected sheep or 
those suspected of being unhealthy. 

It is a safe rule to permit no sheep to remain 
upon the, farm that has a cough, that is droopmg, 
has a dead, thriftless wool, or that persists in re- 
maining in thin flesh. Naturally the best ewes 
will become thin when suckling their lambs, but 
if they are in health they should soon recover if 
afterward they have sufficient food. 

It used to be supposed that Merino sheep were 
less subject to internal parasites than sheep of the 
mutton breeds. This is not true. Sometimes 
Merinos seem of tougher fiber and live longer than 
other breeds when infected, but they are unprofit- 
able unless in health. The long wools — Lincolns, 
Leicesters and Cotswolds — seem less resistant than 
Shropshires, Southdowns and Dorsets, Oxford 
Downs seem readily infested. Whatever breed is 
kept, the management should be the same, as no 
sheep is profitable when diseased. 

After saying so much upon this question of para- 
sites some may be deterred from undertaking to 
keep sheep at all. This would be unwise. Fore- 



252 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

warned, no one need suffer from the pests. On a 
small farm in Ohio, a State peculiarly subject to 
parasitic infection, Mr. Joseph E. Wing has for 
fourteen years kept a flock of Dorset ewes. The 
flock is small, about 150 all told, but it is kept on 
a rather limited area of land. In the early '90's para- 
sites made sad havoc in this flock. In 1896 nearly 
all the lambs died. Since then, by better manage- 
ment, the plague of parasites has almost disap- 
peared, and the profit of the flock much increased. 
These sheep have been kept each year on the same 
land, but not continuouslv. 



PARTV 

SWINE 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

TYPES OF HOGS. 

Swine Husbandry Extensive. — No animal has 
yielded more revenue to the average American 
farmer than the hog. The favor shown this ani- 
mal is not because he possesses more attractive 
qualities than are found in other farm animals, but 
rather for more practical reasons which appeal to 
the masses who till the soil, (i) The feeding of 
swine requires less capital than the feeding of other 
domestic animals. A small sum invested in brood 
sows will, in a year's time, return many fold to the 
purchaser, which makes swine husbandry possible 
on practically all farms, whether large or small, or 
whether operated by owner or renter. (2) A large 
number of hogs may be kept within a compara- 
tively small space, requiring less fencing than is 
necessary for other farm animals. (3) Hogs are 
easily fed and handled. (4) They are the farm's 
scavengers, consuming kitchen waste and other 
refuse which nothing else will consume, material 
which, were it not for the hog, would be wasted. 
For these, and perhaps still other reasons, the hog 
is found more widely distributed over the farming 
districts than any other class of animals. 

253 



254 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 




Photo by Breeder's Gazette 
Lard Type — An English Champion Berkshire Boar. 




FiKiui ij.v iii-f ctif r !< <.:iii-lte 

Bacon Type — An English Champion Tamworth Boar. 



TYPES OF HOGS. 255 

The Improved Breeds of Swine may be divided 
into two classes or types, the Lard, or fat type, and 
the Bacon type. The lard class includes the Berk- 
shire, Poland-China. Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, 
and a few other breeds less common in America. 
All hogs of the lard type are so called because of 
their inherent tendency, when heavily fed, to store 
in their carcasses a large proportion of fat. 

The Conformation of the Lard, or Fat, Hog. — 
The ideal lard hog should be broad and deep in 
body, supported by strong, well-placed legs and 
feet. As with the beef steer, the fat hog has its 
high-priced meat along the back, loin and hams. 
The hog differs from the steer in that a relatively 
higher valuation is placed upon the ham, or what 
corresponds to the thigh of the steer. The side 
meat on the hog is also valuable because it is used 
for bacon. Too much length of body is objection- 
ble, because it means somewhat later maturity, with 
consequent slower fattening proclivities. A long 
body is also more likely to give to the animal a 
drooping back, whereas a slight arching is really 
wanted. On the other hand, too much compactness 
of body may dwarf the growth of the animal, which 
is especially true when there is over-refinement of 
bone. There is. then, danger of having the body 
too short as well as too long. 

The following score-card, suggested by Craig, 
gives a detailed description of the ideal fat barrow 
and the relative importance of the various parts 
of the animal : 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR FAT HOGS— BARROW. 

Perfect 
General Appearance: score. 

Weight, score according to age 6 

Form, deep, broad, low, symmetrical, compact, standing 
squarely on legs 10 



256 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; flesh smooth, 

mellow and free from lumps or wrinkles 10 

Condition, deep,- even covering of flesh, especially in re- 
gion of valuable cuts 10 

Head and Xeck: 

Snout, medium length, not coarse 

Eyes, full, mild, bright 

Face, short ; cheek full 

Ears, fine, medium size, soft 

Jowl, strong, neat, broad 

Neck, thick, medium length 

Forequarters : 

Shoulders, broad, deep, full, compact on top .- . 6 

Breast, advanced, wide 2 

Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns up- 
right ; feet medium size 2 

Body: 

Chest, deep, broad ; large girth 2 

Sides, deep, lengthy, full; ribs close and well sprung. ... 6 

Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 10 

Loin, wide, thick, straight 10 

Belly, straight, even 2 

Hindquarters : 

Hips, wide apart, smooth 2 

Eunip, long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight 2 

Ham, heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 10 

Thighs, fleshed close to hocks 2 

Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns up- 
right ; medium size feet 2 

Total 100 

The score-card is of special importance for the 
use of one who needs a herd boar, whether for 
grade or registered stock. As was mentioned regard- 
ing cattle, the influence of the male in determining 
the character of the ofTspring is as great as the en- 
tire herd of sows to which he is bred ; if a pure- 
bred, which he should be, and the sows are grades 
or mixed bred, the boar counts for more than half 
the herd because of his greater prepotency. For 
this reason unusual care should be taken in mak- 
ing the selection of a herd boar. 

While the score-card shown is arranged for a 
fat barrow, the same general form is wanted in a 
boar, since "like begets like." It is understood. 



TYPES OF HOGS. 257 

however, that the boar should have certain quali- 
ties denoting masculinity, which the barrow does 
not possess. A little more coarseness in the head, 
neck and shoulder gives a slight variation in the 
type -outlined by the score-card, but these qualities 
are desirable, because they indicate greater pre- 
potency ; in other words, more certainty in trans- 
mitting characteristics to offspring. The boar 
should also show a little more bone than is desir- 
able for the fat barrow, which goes with masculin- 
ity. A small, fine bone is objectionable in any 
hog, because it does not give the animal sufficient 
framework upon which to build. Furthermore, an 
extremely fine bone is associated with delicacy of 
constitution and lack of vigor. Heavy hogs in high 
condition oftentimes do not have sufficient strength 
in the thigh bone to support their weight, and a 
breakdown results, a circumstance perhaps more 
likely to occur in the stock yards after the hogs 
have been shipped some distance. Weakness in 
the pastern, that part of the bone between the 
dewclaw and hoof, is cpiite common. If this bone 
is small and long, it may bend dovvn to such a 
degree that the animal supports a part of its weight 
upon the dewclaws. Since much depends upon the 
locomotion of the hog in the field and at the stock 
yards, it is highly important that he should in- 
herit strong legs and feet, as well as a shapely 
body. On the other hand, in the effort of the 
farmer to get bone, he should guard against going 
to the other extreme, as an unduly large bone is 
associated with coarseness, slow-fattening and late- 
maturing qualities. The farmer wants a pig which 
will be sufficiently fat to market at the weight of 
200 to 250 pounds. H he is compelled to feed 
longer, more food is required for a given gain. It 
is further true that the packer is favorable to the 



258 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

250-pound pig, and is quite as willing to pay as 
much for a hog of this weight as for the old-time 
heavy hog. Good type in hogs means not only a 
higher price for the finished product on the market, 
but an earlier finish and a larger gain from a given 
consumption of food in the lot. 

Bacon Type. — The increasing demand and con- 
sequent high price for bacon have resulted in the 
development of a hog of the so-called bacon type. 
There are two breeds belonging to this class, the 
Tamworth and the Yorkshire. Both are long and 
deep in body, which gives a large proportion of 
side meat, from which bacon is made. The hams 
and shoulders are correspondingly small. One of 
the essentials of good bacon is that there should 
be a maximum of lean and a minimum of fat. -The 
Tamworth and Yorkshire have been bred for the 
production of lean tissue. In an experiment con- 
ducted by the writer, where Poland-China pigs 
were fed in the same pen with Tamworths, the 
former at the close of the experiment showed a 
two-inch layer of fat along the back, while the 
Tamworth had only a one-inch layer. This differ- 
ence was due entirely to breed, or type, and not to 
feed. Some doubt, too, has been expressed as to 
the gaining capacity of bacon hogs, but in an ex- 
periment where Tamworths were fed in compari- 
son with Poland-Chinas, Duroc-Jerseys and Berk- 
shire-Tamworth crossbreds, all under like condi- 
tions, the Tamworths proved somewhat the most 
economical gainers, with the Tamworth-Berkshire 
crossbreds second. Breed tests are not always 
satisfactory, however, because of a difference in in- 
dividuals within a breed. Nevertheless, from this 
and other tests it would be safe to say that Tam- 
worths are at least equal to other breeds as feeders. 
The English, Canadian, and a few Eastern markets 



TYPES OF HOGS. 259 

pay a premium for bacon hogs, but as yet these 
are not produced in suffiiCient numbers in the West 
to warrant the packing-houses in handling them 
separately, and therefore they do not outsell other 
hogs. It is not unreasonable to think, however, 
that the time will come when bacon hogs will sell 
at a premium in all parts of the United States, if 
the popularity of breakfast bacon continues to in- 
crease. 

SCOEE-CAED FOE BACON HOGS, AS PUBLISHED IN 
CRAIG 'S ' ' JUDGING LIVE STOCK. ' '—SCALE 
OF POINTS. 

Possible 
General Appearance : score. 

Weight, 170 to 200 lbs., the result of thick cover of firm 

flesh 6 

Form, long, level, smooth, deep 10 

Quality, hair fine; skin thin, smooth; firm, even covering 

of flesh 10 

Condition, even, thick covering of flesh, and not soft, 
flabby fat. Thickness of flesh underneath desirable, 
smooth covering of flesh, free from lumps and wrin- 
kles, with thick, trim belly 10 

Head and Neck: 

Snout, fine 1 

Eyes, full, mild, bright 1 

Face, slim 1 

Ears, trim, medium size 1 

Jowl, light, trim 1 

iVeck, medium length, light 1 

Forequarters : 

Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, compact and 

same width as back and hindquarter 6 

Breast, moderately wide, full 2 

Legs, properly set, short, strong bone, clean, pasterns 

upright 2 

Body: 

Chest, deep, full girth 4 

Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth 8 

Side, long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulder to 
end of hindquarters. The side at all points should' 
touch a straight edge running from fore to hind 

quarter 10 

Eibs, deep, uniformly sprung 2 

Belly, trim, firm, thick, without any flabbiness or shrink- 
age at flank 10 



26o PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Hindquarters : 

Hips, smooth, wide, proportionate to rest of body 2 

Rump, long, even, straight, rounded towards tail , 2 

Ham, firm, fleshed deep, rounded 6 

Thigh, fleshed low towards hock 2 

Legs, properly set, short, strong; feet medium size.... 2 

Total 100 

Digestive Capacity of Swine. — No farm animal 
can manufacture so much meat from a given quan- 
tity of food as the pig, provided the material con- 
sumed is in a more or less concentrated form. For 
the utilization of a ration consisting largely of 
bulky matter the pig is by nature unadapted. Such 
rations are more economically converted into beef 
or mutton. Whereas cattle and sheep have four 
stomachs, the total capacity of which is large, pigs 
have but one, and that very limited in size. To 
be more specific, a car-load of sheep or cattle of a 
certain weight have a combined stomach and in- 
testinal capacity nearly three times as great as a 
car-load of hogs of the same weight. This larger 
digestive capacity of the ruminants makes them 
better adapted for consuming coarse fodders, but 
it gives them no advantage over the pig for grain 
feeding. On the contrary, from the same weight 
of grain, fully one-third less meat will be made by 
cattle and sheep than by pigs. The pig should, 
therefore, be used to utilize refuse from the kitchen 
and dairy, concentrated foodstuffs like the cereals, 
with such bulky matter as can easily be handled — 
necessarily a limited amount. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

THE BREE'DING HERD OF SWINE. 

Breeding Combined With Feeding, — Unlike the 
cattle business, in which it is customary to pro- 
duce large numbers in cheap grazing sections, to 
be transported later to the farming districts for 
feeding purposes, the pork industry must be begun 
and finished on the farm. The pig feeder must 
breed and grow the stock he fattens for market, 
as the dangers from cholera are too great to make 
the buying of stock pigs in the open market prac- 
ticable. Then, too, a breeding herd can be main- 
tained on every farm without seriously interfering 
with market feeding operations, assuming that this 
is to be the farm specialty. Unlike cattle and 
sheep, hogs are very prolific, making it possible to 
produce from a comparatively small breeding herd 
all that can be fed. 

A Grood Brood Sow. — Aside from the qualities 
already discussed in Chapter XXIV on types, the 
brood sow should have qualities which will make 
her a satisfactory breeder. The ideal brood sow 
is one which has the conformation to' make a good 
carcass for the block ; one which will respond well 
to feeding, a matter of inherent vigor and health ; 
and one which will reproduce her kind in paying 
numbers and care for them well. While some pre- 
fer one breed to another, each of which has its 
merits, the desirability of feeding-animals is largely 
a question of type and individuality. The farmer 
should have good animals, whether Berkshire, Po- 



262 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

land-China, Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, Tam- 
worth, Yorkshire, or crosses of these. 

Winter Quarters for Brood Sows. — In providing 
suitable buildings for the brood sows, it is first 
important to select for a site dry, well-drained 
ground, preferably on the south side of a grove or 
other protection from the winter winds. While 
hogs are fond of wet ground in midsummer, such 
a place would not be suitable during colder 
weather, because mud on the skin of the animal 
reduces its temperature, the water absorbing heat 
as it evaporates. Hog houses, as built, vary from 
the small portable kind called "cots," large enough 
for from one to four sows, to expensive structures 
with all possible conveniences. For registered 
herds of choice stock, these costly buildings are 
probably good investments, but for raising com- 
mon market hogs, there is apt to be too large an 
expenditure for the extra revenue which may come 
from having such quarters. 

The Portable House. — Where the ground is well 
drained the small movable house is satisfactory. 
Such a house is constructed on runner sills, so that 
a team hitched to one end can draw it to another 
place whenever necessary for the sake of cleanli- 
ness, or when it is desired to change pasture lots. 
Matched lumber should be used in the construc- 
tion of these houses to give proper protection dur- 
ing the winter months and during the farrowing 
season. On the next page is a photograph of a 
movable house in use at the Nebraska Station. 

The house is 9 feet long, 6 feet wide and 3>4 feet 
to eaves. The longer roof measures 5 feet 4 inches 
from peak to lower edge, while the shorter mea- 
sures 3 feet 3 inches. A small glass window is 
placed in one end and a swinging door in the other. 
During warm weather this door may be fastened 



THE BREEDING HERD OF SWINE. 



263 



open, while during cold weather it is left down, 
being hung in such a way that the pigs can push 
it open when they wish to go in or out, after which 
it closes by its own weight. The trap doors in 
the shorter roof may be left open on pleasant days 
in winter to let in the sun's rays. During hot 
weather there would be a decided advantage in 
having a second roof to place about six inches 




Small Portable Hog House. 

above the first to permit a free circulation of air be- 
» tween the two roofs. The air, acting as a noncon- 
ductor of heat, makes the house much cooler than 
does the single roof. These houses have no floors, 
making it necessary to keep them well bedded in 
cold weather. A floor would be an improvement 
for early spring farrowing, when the ground is 
cold, as there is danger of having too much bed- 
ding for the safety of pigs just farrowed. To pre- 
vent the sow from lying upon her pigs, a plank or 
scantling is fastened to the inner sides of the 



264 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

house, eight or nine inches from the ground, pro- 
jecting ten inches toward the center of the building. 
This prevents the sow from crushing the pigs 
against the side wall when she lies down. The 
runner sills extend in front a distance of 2 feet and 
10 inches and are sawed to give an upward turn. 
A plank is bolted from one projecting sill to the 
otlier. To this the team is attached when the house 
is to be moved. By the use of the small, movable 
house a brood sow can be conveniently kept by 
herself, which is unquestionably desirable, both at 
farrowing time and afterwards, since pigs of the 
same age, or nearly so, do better together than do 
those widely different in age and size. It is need- 
less to say that a place for storing grain should be 
conveniently near all feeding lots. 

Large houses which can be divided into pens 
are more satisfactory on ground that is not per- 
fectly drained, because floors can be built off the 
ground. During bad weather, too, the feeding may 
be done under cover. Such a building would be 
preferable for early litters. Pigs require warmer 
housing than other farm animals, because, first, 
they have but a light coat of hair, and, secondly, 
they are small in size, presenting a large surface in 
proportion to weight, thus losing more heat by ra- 
diation. All lumber should be matched, the roof 
made tight, and glass windows should be made to 
fit well to prevent drafts. The floors should be 
made of planks, especially the floors under sleep- 
ing quarters. Cement is not satisfactory, except 
for the alleyway and feeding apartments, because 
it is a good conductor of heat. Pigs lying on such 
floors are certain to be uncomfortable in winter, 
as the cold is conducted from below direct to the 
animal, unless a thick layer of straw is kept be- 
neath at all times, or a plank panel, called an over- 



THE BREEDING HERD OF SWINE. 265 

lay, is placed on the cement floor to give a warm 
contact. 

Feed for the Brood Sow Before Farrowing. — In 
feeding a brood sow before farrowing time, it must 
be borne in mind that not only the sow must be 
maintained, but the young she carries must be 
nourished in such a way that they will be strong 
and vigorous at birth. Much depends upon the 
sow's ration. If she is fed heavily on starchy food, 
too much internal fat is formed, the presence of 
which is detrimental to young in iitero. There 
are no dangers from overfeeding, however, if the 
feed is of the right character. Sows are too often 
underfed. There are three principal things to con- 
sider in feeding the brood sow : first, to provide 
the nutrients — starch, protein, etc. — in proper pro- 
portions, or as nearly so as possible ; secondly, to 
furnish sufficient bulk to keep the system in a 
healthy condition ; and, thirdly, to make such a 
ration as inexpensive as possible. 

The brood sow needs considerable protein, be- 
cause it is largely concerned in the development of 
her young. If it is a young sow, not yet mature, 
still more is needed, because she is building tissues 
for her own body as well as for her young. Since 
it is not desired to crowd the brood sow for large 
gains as in the case of the fattening animal, it is bet- 
ter for her, and more economical for the breeder, to 
provide considerable bulky feed. If there is kitchen 
waste the brood sow sliould have it. Skim milk is 
another very useful adjunct. Assuming that these 
are not available, or that they can be had only in 
limited quantity, substitutes must be supplied. 
Whatever starchy matter she needs can be sup- 
plied most cheaply with corn, at least in the so- 
called corn belt. In the more Northern latitudes, 
where barley is more successfully grown than 



266 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING, 

corn, this cereal, although less satisfactory, could 
be substituted for corn. If the entire ration for a 
young sow is half corn or barley, say 2 per cent of 
her live weight, or 4 pounds per day for a 200- 
pound sow, she could derive whatever more nour- 
ishment is needed from a more bulky and less ex- 
pensive material. This should be a nitrogenous 
roughness, as clover or alfalfa, either of which 
will supply the necessary protein at a price much 
below what it would cost in some protein concen- 
trate, as wheat shorts, or the more concentrated 
oil meal. At the North Platte (Nebraska) Substa- 
tion, mature sows, carrying young, maintained fair 
thrift on corn fed in a quantity equivalent to i per 
cent of live weight, with alfalfa pasture. 

Alfalfa or clover may be fed as hay during the 
winter or as pasture in summer. In the former 
case there will be less waste if the hay is first run 
through a cutting machine. This cut hay may be 
mixed with corn meal, and enough water added to 
make a thick slop ; or, if corn is fed on the cob, the 
hay may be fed separately and uncut. In a sec- 
tion of the country where feed is relatively cheap, 
it is doubtful if enough better results can be se- 
cured to pay for cutting the hay and grinding the 
corn. While some feeders throw the uncut hay 
upon the ground, it is cleaned up much better if 
racks are built, so that the sows can eat the hay 
from below without throwing it under foot. For 
winter feeding the last cutting of alfalfa is prefer- 
able for hogs, because that cutting usually has a 
smaller stem and more leaves, and the same is true 
of clover. The chaff of either hay plant is better 
than hay, if it can be obtained in sufficient quan- 
tity from such places as the floor of the cattle 
barn, where it usually accumulates during winter 
feeding. 



THE BREEDING HERD OF SWINE. 2()'J 

Should one not have clover or alfalfa hay, it will 
be necessary to supply either wheat shorts, bran, 
oil meal, gluten meal or tankage with the corn. If 
skim milk can be had, this, fed with corn in the 
proportion of i pound of corn to 3 pounds of skim 
milk, will be entirely satisfactory. 

At ordinary prices the dry brood sow should be 
fed about i pound of shorts or bran to 3 pounds 
of corn ; or i pound of gluten, oil meal, or tankage 
to 8 pounds of corn. Whichever of the several foods 
is purchased will depend largely upon the relative 
cost of the protein, which cost can be determined 
by dividing the price per hundred by the number 
of pounds of digestible protein in 100 pounds of 
food, as given in the table in the appendix. The 
ration for a dry brood sow could be made one-half 
oats and one-half corn, if the oats are to be had at 
corn prices by the hundred. In the South, where 
soy beans and cow peas are grown, there will be 
required about i pound of soy bean meal to 8 
of corn, and i pound of cowpeas to 5 of corn. 
Northern field peas could be substituted for cow- 
peas. 

By supplementing corn or ba^'ley with a protein 
food in any of the ways described, the sow can be 
brought up to a fair condition of flesh without in- 
juring her as a breeder. By virtue of her flesh at 
farrowing time she will need less crowding with 
grain while suckling her pigs than if she were to 
farrow spare in flesh. The pigs will also be strong 
and thrifty at birth. 

Feed for the Brood Sow After Farrowing, — Dur- 
ing the first twenty-four hours after farrowing, 
while the sow is in a very feverish condition, she 
will show little, if any, inclination for feed. Water 
slightly warmed should be supplied liberally. A 
thin bran mash is relished before the sow regains 



268 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

her appetite for heavy feed, as is also skim milk. 
On the second day a slop of wheat shorts with 
bran may be fed, or, if these are not on hand, four 
pounds of corn may be mixed with one pound of 
oil meal and a small quantity fed. Oil meal has a 
laxative effect, which is desirable for the fresh sow. 
A mixture of two pounds of corn with one of 
shorts or bran, depending upon prices, may be fed 
in increasing amounts until the sow is eating a 
full feed, which should require fully one month's 
time to avoid scours or thumps in the pigs. A 
day's ration would then be about 4^ per 
cent of the live weight of a growing sow, and 
about 4 per cent of the weight of a mature sow 
in average condition. This heavier ration might 
consist of six pounds of corn to one pound of 
oil meal or gluten meal, as these foods are 
often cheaper than shorts or bran. With sufficient 
skim milk, four or five pounds to one of corn may 
be fed, in which case nothing else is needed. Man- 
gel-wurzels or other roots are excellent for sows 
not on pasture, because succulent feed promotes a 
good flow of milk. Alfalfa hay at average prices 
is the mpst economical of all, and may be fed as 
soon as the sow has fully recovered from the effects 
of farrowing. Not less than 75 per cent by weight 
of her full ration should consist of corn, with the 
remaining 25 per cent hay, which amount will fur- 
nish nearly all the protein needed. Should the hay 
be short and fine or in the form of chaff, 70 per 
cent of corn would keep her in good thrift. When 
receiving uncut hay, a young sow should have 3 per 
cent of her live weight in pounds of corn and all the 
hay she will eat. 

The Brood Sow on Pasture. — During the sum- 
mer months less corn will be required on alfalfa 
or clover pasture than on hay. Half of a full feed 



THE BREEDING HERD OF SWINE. 269 

of corn, or about 2 per cent of the sow's live 
weight, with all the pasture she wants is a cheap 
and adequate ration. Care should be taken not to 
overpasture, both for the sake of the sow and the 
field of alfalfa. It is always best to provide a good 
run, cutting first one-half the field for hay, and 
when this has grown up, the other half; or the 
sows may be turned from one field into another, 
the second not to be cut until the first is again well 
started. 

Rape, though perhaps not so well relished as al- 
falfa, is better than blue grass and makes a good 
pasture for sows. It is well to feed with blue grass 
a little more corn than with rape or alfalfa, be- 
cause less pasture will be consumed. With wheat, 
rye, or sorghum pastures, protein foods must be 
given with corn, which is one reason why none of 
these pastures are as satisfactory as alfalfa, clover, 
or rape. 

With sows fed as outlined from the time of far- 
rowing, there will be little danger of the pigs being 
troubled with "thumps," a disease brought on by 
overfeeding the sow early in lactation, on grains 
of a heavy character, at the same time depriving 
the pigs of needed exercise. 

Feeding Dry Sows Which Have Not Been Bred. 
— A sow suckling a good-sized litter, no matter how 
liberally she ma}^ be fed, is almost certain to shrink 
in weight, which loss, however, may be recovered 
after the pigs are weaned. Dry sows from which 
the pigs have just been weaned do well on good 
alfalfa pasture without grain. At the North Platte 
(Nebraska) Substation, sows weighing 200 pounds 
each, gained .43 pound per day for 63 days on 
alfalfa pasture with no grain. In this connection it 
must be stated that the pasture was good and the 
sows were thin in flesh at the time the pigs were 



2/0 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

weaned. At the Michigan Station, "five dry sows 
were turned on June grass May 27, 19^)4, rape July 
9, June grass again July 25, and returned to rape 
August 6, where they remained till September 9, 
in all covering a period of 105 days. No grain or 
supplementary feed of any sort was given during 
the entire period, though the sows had access to 
water and shade. During these 105 days there was 
an increase of two pounds in the weight of the 
bunch." The individual record of each sow is 
shown Ky the following : 

WEIGHTS OF FIVE DEY SOWS DURING TEST OF 105 
DAYS. 

Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight Gain 
May 27, July 9, July 25, Aug. 6, Sept. 9. or 
1904. 1904. 1904. 1904. 1904. loss. 

Poland China .... 298 

Old Tamworth ... 366 

Poland China No. 1 194 

Poland China No. 2 159 

Poland China No. 3 170 

Here was an average daily loss of .42 pound per 
sow on blue grass, and an average daily gain of .47 
pound per sow on rape. However, a part of the 
shrinkage on grass was thought to have been due 
to the shortness and drvness of the grass early in 
July. 

Feed for Pigs Before Weaning. — Young pigs 
show an inclination to eat from the trough when 
only two or three weeks old, and if the litter is 
(arge it is advisable to supply them with food 
early. Nothing is superior to skim milk mixed 
with wheat shorts to form a thin porridge. Such 
feed is easily digested and is rich in bone and 
muscle making material, and just what the young 
pigs need. It is, of course, necessary to provide 
a separate trough for the pigs, around which is 
built a fence, with the lower board close enough to 



283 


281 


183 


291.5 


—6.5 


358 


359 


353 


379.5 


+ 13.5 


180 


173.5 


176 


180 


—14 


171 


163 


177 


174 


fl5 


163 


155 


157.5 


164 


—6 



THE BREEDING HERD OF SWINE. 27I 

the ground to keep out the mature hogs, yet high 
enough \o allow the pigs to go beneath. At the 
age of four weeks it is well to add a little corn 
meal or soaked shelled corn to the ration, until, by 
the time the pigs are old enough to wean, they are 
being given a mixture consisting of equal parts of 
corn and shorts. Some farmers make a practice of 
weaning at the age of seven weeks, but if the sow 
raises only one litter per year the age of ten or 
twelve weeks is preferable. From results obtained 
at the Wisconsin Experiment Station, it would 
seem that the gains on young pigs are made as eco- 
nomically by feeding a given weight of food 
through the dam as by feeding directly to the pigs. 
The advantage in depending more upon the sow for 
the nourishment of the pigs is the fact that the sow 
is able to consume proportionately more inexpen- 
sive green forage than are the pigs. If, as some- 
times happens, certain pigs in the litter are con- 
siderably larger than others, it is well to wean 
these stronger pigs first, inasmuch as this will tend 
to make the entire litter more even in size, and it 
will also be a more gradual way of drying off the 
sow. 

The herd boar, during the season when not in 
use, should be given practically the same food as 
suggested for the brood sow before farrowing. If 
he is mature, he will need but very little, if any, 
grain, provided he has an abundance of good pas- 
ture. He should be given pasture, not alone for 
the sake of economy, but also for exercise — to pro- 
mote muscular development, stamina and vigor, so 
essential in a breeding sire. With any of the 
legumes or rape for pasture, what little grain is 
given him may consist of corn alone or mixed with 
barley, rye or any other grain no more costly than 
corn. A boar should be fed a little protein food, 



272 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



as shorts, oil meal or tankage, with corn when 
no pasture is supplied, and proportionately more of 
such foods if he is young and undeveloped, al- 
though perhaps not to exceed 15 per cent of oil 
meal. While it is not necessary to keep the herd 
boar in high condition throughout the entire year, 
as the breeding season approaches his grain ration 
should be increased, in order to have him in good 
thrift and fairly fleshy when used in the herd. As 
mentioned in the chapter on breeding sheep, the 
number of offspring is likely to be greater, if both 
sire and dam are gaining rather than losing in 
flesh at the time of mating. It is also true that 
the propensity of the offspring to put on flesh is 
greater, if the parents are in good condition during 
the breeding season. Flesh on one boar can be 
made with less expense than on several sows. He 
should not, however, be fed excessively on corn, 
nor put in such high condition as will make him 
unsatisfactory as a breeding sire. 




Duroc-Jersey Brooa Sow ancl P'gs. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

FATTENING PIGS IN THE FALL. 

Summer Feeding Profitable. — Pigs farrowed in 
the spring as early as the weather will permit are 
most profitable under average conditions, because 
they can be finished for market in the fall. Svmi- 
mer and fall feeding is profitable for two reasons : 
(i) pigs have but a light coat of hair for protec- 
tion, which makes them very susceptible to cold 
weather ; (2) pasture can be had in summer, which 
lessens materially the cost of producing pork. 
Both cattle and sheep have better natural protec- 
tion against cold than have pigs, but are less able 
to stand hot summer weather, especially when pigs 
are provided with a shaded wallow. After several 
years of experimentation, the writer does not hesi- 
tate to say that there is no way in which pork 
can be made at less expense than with grain on 
pasture, provided the grain and pasture are of the 
right kind. No matter how perfectly balanced a 
ration without pasture may be, from one-fifth to 
one-third less grain will be required for a given gain 
if good pasture is supplied. At the Nebraska Ex- 
periment Station, pork which was worth on the 
market $5 per hundred, live weight, was made at a 
cost of $2.43 per hundred with corn and alfalfa 
pasture, the corn being worth at the time 30 cents 
per bushel and the alfalfa pasture $5 per acre. At 
another time, when corn was worth 56 cents per 
bushel, gains were made at a cost of $4.13 per hun- 
dred, at which time live pork was worth on the mar- 
ket $7.50 per hundred. 

273 



274 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Feeding Pigs When First Weaned. — When pigs 
are first weaned, some time in May or early June, 
they are hardly large enough to derive all their 
protein from forage crops. Young pigs need more 
protein than older pigs, because they are growing 
rather than fattening. They should be given either 
alfalfa, clover or rape pasture, and with such feed 
the grain may be more largely corn than with pas- 
ture less rich in protein. For rapid gains in pigs 
nothing is superior to corn meal and skim milk. 
Enough of the latter should be used to make a slop 
thin enough to distribute itself quickly in the 
trough. Without skim milk, a slop containing two 
pounds of corn meal and one pound of wheat shorts 
gives excellent results on pasture. If shorts 
are high in price, one pound of dried .blood 
m.ay be mixed with nine pounds of corn meal ; or 
one pound of oil meal or soy bean meal, with five 
pounds of corn meal. Oil meal, however, some- 
times induces scours in pigs, and for that reason 
is less satisfactory than dried blood. Dried blood 
is also preferable to tankage for young pigs, be- 
cause the latter contains some animal fat, which 
is difficult for them to digest and is very likely to 
cause scours. In feeding any of these mixtures, 
there should be given all that will be cleaned up 
quickly twice per day. This will be about three- 
fourths of what they would consume without pas- 
ture. 

Feeding Shoats. — As the pigs grow larger, the 
proportion of corn may gradually be increased. 
After a weight of 75 to 100 pounds has been 
reached, it would be most economical to feed corn 
alone with pasture, unless corn is high in price and 
supplementary foods low. In a Nebraska experi- 
ment somewhat larger gains were secured by sup- 
plementing corn on alfalfa, but the cost of gains 
was less on corn and alfalfa without a supple- 



FATTENING PIGS IN THE FALL. 275 

rnent. The same thing was shown at the South 
Dakota Station, where barley and rape pasture gave 
somewhat smaller, but cheaper gains, than barley 
supplemented with tankage, dried blood, oil meal 
or skim milk. If one does not have corn for feed- 
ing pigs on pasture, either barley or wheat or rye 
may be fed in the same way. In feeding any of 
these grains on pasture they should be ground or 
soaked, with the possible exception of corn, which 
may be fed on the cob or shelled. Still, in warm 
weather it is not inconvenient to soak corn, and 
when treated in this way it is enough better to pay 
well for the trouble, and soaking is much less ex- 
pensive than grinding. 

Rape and clover are both good pasture plants for 
pigs. Experiments at Wisconsin indicate that rape 
is superior to clover. The field peas of the North, 
if pastured when the peas are just large enough to 
cook, undoubtedly give the most rapid growth of 
all forage plants, with the possible exception of soy 
beans, and less grain will be required, at least while 
the peas last. With green field peas a half feed of 
clear corn meal is best for trough feeding, although 
a good growth can be made without supplying any 
grain in addition. Cheaper gains, however, are ob- 
tained if the peas are supplemented with corn. 
The disadvantage in growing field peas for pigs is 
the expense of the seed and the labor of putting in 
the crop annually. Of the different forage plants, 
alfalfa is most satisfactory for hogs, first, because 
it can be made a permanent pasture ; secondly, be- 
cause it is richest in protein, making an excellent 
combination with corn ; and, thirdly, because it has 
tender leaves and a small stem, which make it 
easily masticated, besides being greatly relished. 
In feeding alfalfa care should be taken not to over- 
pasture. It is best to run the pigs in a field that 
can be mowed, holding in reserve another to pas- 



276 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

ture while the freshly mown field is getting a new 
start, as was suggested for brood sows. Pigs 
which show an inclination to root in the sod should 
be rung. In pasturing forage crops, portable fences 
may be built and moved about from one season to 
another. For alfalfa, woven wire is desirable, 
since, with a crop that does not need reseeding 
year after year, a stationary fence is best. Woven 
wire two feet in width will answer. Such a fence 
can be made to turn cattle by stretching one or two 
strands of barb wire along the top. 

Heavy Corn Feeding on Alfalfa Pasture Most 
Profitable. — IMarch pigs may be made ready for 
market at the close of the pasturage season, weigh- 
ing in October or November from, 200 to 250 
pounds each. This can be done only when grain 
has been fed liberally from start to finish. In fact, 
when corn is not excessively high in price, the lib- 
eral use of grain on pasture seems to be most eco- 
nomical. At the Nebraska Experiment Station 
four lots of pigs, ten in each lot, were given alfalfa 
pasture with corn in varying amounts. The aver- 
age record for each pig in the four lots is shown by 
the following table : 

Lot 2. Lots. Lot 4. 
Lot 1. Light iN'ediiun Heavy 
No grain grain grain 

grain. ration, ration. ration. 
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 
Av. wt. of each pig, Aug. 27. . 74.0 73.-5 73.5 72.5 

Av. wt. of eacli pig, Oct. 27.. 75.4 9.5.2 113.3 126.2 

Av. gain from Aug. 27 to 

Oct. 27 1.4 21.7 39.8 53.7 

Daily gain per pig 02 .34 .63 .85 

Av. amt. of corn consumed 

by each pig per day 1.33 2.48 3.46 

Corn consumed per pound of 

gain 3.86 3.98 4.23 

Cost of corn per 100 lbs. of 

gain 2.08 2.15 2.28 

Cost of pasture per 100 lbs. 

of gain $14.30 $0.66 $0.30 $0.15 

Total cost per 100 lbs. of gain 14.30 2.74 2.45 2.43 



FATTENING PIGS IN THE EALL. 277 

In making the estimates for cost of gains, corn 
at the time was worth 30 cents per bushel in Lin- 
coln, Nebraska, and alfalfa pasture was valued at 
$5 per acre for the growing season of five months, 
which would be $2 per acre for the two months 
the experiment was in progress. In this experi- 
ment the alfalfa fields were all of the same size 
and large enough to harvest hay while the pigs 
were on pasture. During the previous summer it 
was found that one acre of alfalfa would pasture 
twenty-four lOO-pound shoats while on full grain 
feed, but this number injured the stand. In this 
test, one acre would have furnished sufficient feed 
for 10 pigs without grain, or 14 pigs receiving 
1.33 pounds of corn per day, 17 receiving 2.48 
pounds, or 20 receiving 3.46 pounds per day, 
by pasturing to the limit without cutting hay. 
From these estimates the cost of pasture per 
pig was computed. The experiment shows that 
the heaviest fed lot made somewhat the cheap- 
est gains. This lot was given a little less than a 
full feed of corn the first month and all that would 
be consumed the second month. Alfalfa pasture 
can hardly be figured at more than $1 per acre 
above the interest and taxes upon the land valua- 
tion. Were the alfalfa higher in price the results 
would be still more in favor of the heaviest fed lot. 
On the other hand, had corn been higher in price, 
as is often the case. Lot 3, which received about 
75 per cent of all the corn they could consume, 
would have made the cheapest gains. 

Li^nder average Western conditions a full feed of 
corn night and morning on alfalfa pasture is prob- 
ably the most profitable, taking into consideration 
the desirability of securing such gains as will enable 
the feeder to market at the close of the pasturage 
season. Pasture without grain proved to be little 



278 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

more than a maintenance ration for these pigs, and 
was by far the most expensive of all. Such animals 
lack the digestive capacity necessary to make gains 
on bulky feed alone. Large, thin brood sows are 
able to make a growth, because of a larger capacity. 
In these experiments it was shown, that with the 
lot fed grain liberally on pasture, the same gains 
were made on about two-thirds of what grain had 
been consumed in a previous experiment where no 
pasture was supplied. Pigs running in pasture not 
only require less grain, but the effect of the exer- 
cise upon the general health of the animal is ex- 
tremely favorable for such feeding. In another ex- 
periment the addition of 5 per cent bone meal to a 
full ration of corn with alfalfa pasture lessened the 
amount of grain required for a pound of gain 22 
per cent. This is the result of a single trial for a 
period of two months with ten pigs in each lot. 
Further experimentation must follow in order to 
gain reliable evidence concerning the value of bone 
meal fed with corn on alfalfa pasture. 

Fall Pigs. — If a sow produces but one litter of 
pigs per year, the proper time for farrowing is in 
the spring. In cold climates it takes considerably 
more feed to properly nourish a sow and pigs in 
winter than in summer, and warmer pens must be 
provided. Only mature sows should be expected to 
raise two litters per year. With good, liberal feed- 
ing a sow can produce two moderate sized litters 
without harm to herself or the pigs, if the latter are 
fed as early as possible. With two litters per year 
it is advisable to wean the young at the end of seven 
weeks, breeding the sow the first heat following, the 
period of gestation. being sixteen weeks. 

Fall pigs after being weaned may be fed liber- 
ally with grain, giving corn and a percentage of pro- 
tein foods double that recommended for young pigs 



FATTENING PIGS IN THE FALL. 279 

on pasture, at least until they are old enough to eat 
clover and alfalfa hay. One of these could then be 
substituted for a part of the protein concentrates. A 
liberal system of grain feeding all winter and early 
spring would put them in condition for a late spring 
or early summer market, but less crowding on grain 
during the winter, with corn on pasture until about 
July I, would in all probability be more profitable. 
Rye pasture may be provided for early spring, but 
it is to be remembered that such pasture does not 
provide protein, as do rape and the legumes — alfalfa, 
clover and cowpeas. 




Poland-Chinas in the Feed-lot. 



CHAPTER XXVIl. 

FATTENING PIGS IN WINTER. 

As indicated by the pasture experiment described 
in the previous chapter, when corn is relatively high 
in price, pork may be produced more economically 
by feeding less corn than would constitute a full 
feed on pasture — a daily allowance of not less than 
two per cent, nor more than three per cent of the 
live weight of the pig in pounds. Under such cir- 
cumstances considerable growth would be secured 
during the summer, and the fattening accomplished 
in winter with new and perhaps cheaper corn. 
Nearly all farmers, too, have some late spring pigs 
which can not be finished by fall, no matter how 
liberally fed, and must, therefore, be fattened in 
winter. 

Shelter, — In the economical production of pork in 
winter it is absolutely necessary to provide comfort- 
able quarters. Pigs will not make satisfactory gains 
if left to shiver for lack of shelter. Expensive struc- 
tures are not necessary. A shed boarded on 'all 
sides, having an opening for entrance on the leeward 
side, with boards, cornstalks, or straw on top for a 
roof, and an abundance of bedding underneath, will 
answer the purpose, so far as the comfort of the pigs 
is concerned. Such a shelter is warm enough in 
severely cold weather, if the roof is not too high 
from, the ground. The temperature can be more 
easily regulated, however, if the roof is moderately 
high and on one side of the shed are hung doors 
which can be left wide open or partly closed, ac- 
cording to the severity of the weather. Portable 
houses, as described on page 263, are also satisfac- 



FATTENING PIGS IN WINTER. 281 

tory for fattening pigs, preventing, as they do, 
overheating caused by a large number sleeping in 
one nest. 

Winter Rations. — In the West, where corn is 
abundant, the majority of farmers feed nothing but 
this grain, for reasons readily apparent. A basket 
of ears may be taken from the crib and scattered 
upon the ground with comparatively little labor, the 
pigs shelling the corn from the cob with little diffi- 
culty and eating it with relish. They consume a 
large quantity . and fatten quickly, enabling the 
farmer to market them after a comparatively short 
period of feeding. But while fairly good gains may 
be secured on corn alone, it does not follow that the 
best results are attained by practicing such a sys- 
tem. In fact, numerous tests made at different sta- 
tions comparing corn alone with corn supplemented 
with .other foods furnish reliable evidence that corn 
properly supplemented is much superior to corn 
alone. From an economical point of view, a 100- 
pound pig of average flesh will show the largest 
gain from a given weight of food when there is 
present in the ration about one pound of protein, or 
flesh-making material, to 6.5 or 7 pounds of non- 
nitrogenous material, such as starches, sugars and 
fats. In corn there is one pound of protein, or ni- 
trogenous matter, to 9.7 non-nitrogenous. That this 
excess of non-nitrogenous matter in corn is not uti- 
lized at all, or in very small part, is a generally ac- 
cepted fact, because it has been proved conclusively 
by practical feeding tests. This being true, less 
food for a given gain will be required if something 
rich in protein is fed with tb.c corn. 

Wheat Shorts a Source of Protein. — At the Wis- 
consin Experiment Station 5.37 pounds of corn were 
required for one pound of gain, and 5.22 pounds of 
wheat shorts were required for the same gain when 



282 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

each was fed separately. By combining the two in 
equal proportions by weight, only 4.4 pounds of 
the mixture were required for one pound of gain. 
In this experiment there was required about one- 
fifth less corn for a pound of gain when the corn 
was mixed with wheat shorts. At the South Da- 
kota Station 16 per cent more grain was required 
for producing a given gain on shoats weighing 114 
pounds, when corn alone was fed, than when the 
grain consisted of equal parts of corn and shorts. In 
this experiment shorts cost the same price per hun- 
dred as the corn, and the profits were therefore 16 
per cent greater by mixing the two together. It 
was also found in this experiment that the gains 
from corn and shorts were 10 per cent larger and 10 
per cent. cheaper than from shorts alone. In a Mis- 
souri test, when 20 per cent of the grain ration con- 
sisted of shorts, 21 per cent less feed was required 
for each pound of gain than when corn alone was 
fed. At the same station 30 per cent was saved by 
making the ration 33 per cent shorts. In Nebraska 
2^ per cent was saved by feeding 20 per cent of 
shorts, and in an Indiana test with 50-pound pigs, 
38 per cent was saved by feeding equal parts of 
shorts and corn in comparison with corn alone. 

In wheat shorts there is present one pound of 
protein, or nitrogenous matter, to four pounds of 
non-nitrogenous. There is, therefore, a defi- 
ciency of the non-nitrogenous, or starchy, mate- 
rial in this foodstufif. By mixing shorts with corn 
we are able to secure a proportion of nutrients 
which more nearly meets the requirements of the 
animal. The most economical proportion of corn 
to shorts depends upon current prices. If corn 
sells relatively high and shorts low, equal parts of 
the two would be profitable for fattening hogs. It 
is usually the case, however, that shorts are worth 



FATTENING PIGS IN WINTER. 283 

considerably more per hundred than corn. Under 
these circumstances better profits, but perhaps 
somewhat smaller gains, would be obtained by feed- 
ing a larger proportion of corn. At average West- 
ern prices, the proportion of three pounds of corn 
to one pound of wheat shorts is ordinarily most 
profitable. This proportion can be varied slightly, 
according to current prices. Should corn ever reach 
the low mark of 10 cents per bushel, as it did in the 
West at one time, and protein foods remain high in 
price, then it would be profitable to feed corn alone. 
At that price the feeder could better afford to waste 
the excess of starch in corn than buy any protein 
foods to balance the ration and convert the whole 
into meat. 

Concentrated Protein Foods. — There are years 
when wheat shorts arc too high to be used by the 
feeder. As a substitute the farmer has at his disposal 
such commercial protein foods as oil meal, gluten 
meal and tankage, which, as the table in the ap- 
pendix shows, contain a little more than twice as 
much protein as is found in wheat shorts. It will 
also be noted that the soy bean, grown in the South- 
ern States, contains about the same as is found in oil 
meal or gluten meal. A ration made up of eight 
pounds of corn to one pound of any one of these 
four foods will answer the same purpose as the ra- 
tion of corn and shorts in the proportion suggested. 
In an Indiana experiment, where light pigs were 
fed two-thirds corn and one-third soy bean meal 
in comparison with corn, 46 per cent less of the 
former feed wa,s required for a given gain. The 
Missouri Station found oil meal with corn a de- 
cided advantage. 

Cottonseed Meal Often Poisonous for Pigs.— Cot- 
tonseed meal, another Southern product, while 
rich in protein, containing even more than the food- 



284 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Stuffs mentioned, cannot safely be used in pig feed- 
ing, because of its deleterious effects upon the sys- 
tem. Pigs fed even a small proportion of cotton 
seed meal are apt to become sick, and if the feeding 
is continued they often die. The Texas Station re- 
ports its successful use for pigs, but Northern feed- 
ers should not risk it so long as there are other 
protein foods on the market at corresponding prices. 
Running pigs behind cattle fed cottonseed meal, 
however, seems to be entirely safe. 

Skim milk may be fed to fattening pigs and will 
furnish all the protein needed if supplied in suffi- 
cient quantity. Three pounds of skim milk mixed 
with one pound of corn meal makes a very satis- 
factory ration for fattening swine. It has been 
found by experiments that fattening pigs fed liber- 
ally upon skim milk m.ixed with meal — mostly corn 
— can be made to eat more feed per day and will 
make larger gains than on any combination of foods 
without milk. Near large creameries it is often 
possible to procure skim milk in large quantities. 
If it can be had at a price not to exceed 15 
cents per hundred pounds, it can be fed with profit. 
In feeding this or any other of the protein foods 
recommended in connection with corn, the propor- 
tion could be slightly altered to conform more to 
prices prevailing for foodstuffs of either character. 
In the Eastern States, where corn is relatively high, 
more protein foods could be used profitably. 

Alfalfa Hay for Hogs. — In the West, where al- 
falfa hay is now being extensively grown, its use 
as a source of protein to supplement corn has sim- 
plified very much the problem of economic pork pro- 
duction. To give the reader an idea of the worth 
of alfalfa hay as a substitute for shorts or milk in 
connection with corn feeding, and to further empha- 
size what has been said concerning the value of corn 



FATTENING PIGS IN WINTER. 285 

properly supplemented in comparison with corn 
alone, the results of an experiment performed at the 
Nebraska Experiment Station during the winter of 
1902-03 are given below. Twenty pigs, uniform in 
quality, were divided into four lots of five each. The 
following table shows the average record of each 
pig by lot : 





S3 a y. 


•^ . 


(N 


t4 


0/^ 


di 




■-'^^ 


Ml a> 


a 




a 


s 




Qi 0^ 1^ 




11 


a 

'5 


3 J. 

c 






Sf tni.5 


&5 


gil^ 


a. 


Mi 


d 




."i a - 


CO 


* - ?; 


ec >. 




















g;«jaa 


^« 


x-O & 


0.^ 


c-os 


a. W) 




< 


< 


< 


< 




fe. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lot I 


. . . 127.6 


206.2 


78.6 


.93 




7.4 


Corn meal . . 










587 





Lot II 129.2 261.8 132.6 1.57 5.2 

Corn meal 585.4 

Milk solids (in 

1,170 pounds 

skim-milk) 110.5 



695.9 

Lot III 126 227.6 101.6 1.2 5.8 

Corn meal, 80% 473.9 

Shorts, 20% 118.4 



592.3 

Lot IV 128.4 230 101.6 1.2 5.8 

Corn meal, 80% 474.8 

Alfalfa, 20% 118.7 



593.5 
The alfalfa fed in this experiment was in the na- 
ture of chafif, consisting mostly of leaves which had 
fallen from the hay as it was thrown from the mow 
to the barn floor for cattle. For the purpose of mak- 
ing a true comparison of these leaves with the whole 
plant, an analysis was made. The leaves were found 
to be 40 per cent richer in crude protein than the 
entire plant, 30 per cent higher in fat, 15 per cent 
higher in mineral matter, and 50 per cent lower in 
crude fiber, which substance is largely indigestible 



286 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

matter. This chaff was first mixed with the corn 
meal, then placed in the feed trough, where it was 
made into a thick slop with water. The other lots 
were fed in the same way, except that the feed for 
Lot 2 was mixed with skim milk instead of water. 
Cost of Production. — With the alfalfa hay worth 
$7 per ton, the leaves, containing 40 per cent more 
protein, would be worth approximately $10 per ton. 
The shorts cost $12.50 per ton delivered. The Dairy 
Department charged 15 cents per hundred for the 
skim milk used. Corn was delivered to the barns at 
30 cents per bushel. Adding the usual rate of six 
cents per hundred for grinding, the corn meal cost 
$12 per ton. At these prices, each hundred pounds 
of gain in the several lots cost as follows : 

Lot 1. Corn alone $4.48 

Lot 2, Corn and skim milk 3.97 

Lot 3. Corn and shorts 3.53 

Lot 4. Corn and alfalfa 3.40 

The skim-milk pigs were the most hearty feeders 
and made the heaviest gains, but it proved a more 
expensive source of protein at the prices quoted. 

This experiment shows that at these prices, and 
in the proportions used in the experiment, skim 
milk will make corn bring four cents more per 
bushel ; wheat shorts, eight cents more ; and alfalfa 
leaves, nine cents more. Assuming that onl}- 5 per 
cent of the 252,520,173 bushels of corn produced in 
Nebraska in 1902 was fed to hogs as a single food, 
these figures would go to show that over $1,000,000 
more wealth would have been added to the State 
if wheat shorts or alfalfa had been substituted for 
one-fifth of the corn fed. 

An examination of the carcasses of one corn fed 
pig and one corn and alfalfa pig showed the pres- 
ence of more lean meat where alfalfa was fed. The 
alfalfa pig also had better developed vital organs, 



FATTENING PIGS IN WINTER. 287 

more blood and much stronger bone, a matter re- 
quiring further investigation before inferences can 
safely be drawn, although entirely consistent, inas- 
much as alfalfa is rich in protein and mineral matter. 

In the experiment described, alfalfa chaff proved 
to be as valuable, pound for pound, as wheat shorts. 
From the fact that the leaves furnish more nourish- 
ment than the stem, we should naturally expect bet- 
ter results from chaff than from the entire plant. 
While not all farmers have alfalfa chaff in abun- 
dance, cut alfalfa hay may be had in almost unlim- 
ited quantity wherever alfalfa is grown. Machines 
are put on the market at moderate prices which will 
cut the stems in lengths suitable for feeding hogs. 
Most feeders grind the corn and mix it with this cut 
alfalfa hay. For most economical gains, it should 
be used in about the proportion of four pounds of 
corn meal to one pound of alfalfa hay, and fed in 
the form of a thick slop by using water or, prefera- 
bly, milk. This mixture should be fed very liberally 
three times per day — in fact, all that the pigs will 
consume. While grinding the corn and cutting the 
alfalfa hay will perhaps give somewhat larger 
gains, it is doubtfu-l if enough better results are ob- 
tained to pay for the labor involved. If the first 
crop of alfalfa hay is used, the stems might as well 
be wasted, as they are extremely diflficult for pigs 
to assimilate, and they contain little nourishment. 

Last Cutting of Alfalfa Best. — Wherever it is 
possible, a farmer who grows alfalfa should put 
away the last cutting for pig feeding. Late in the 
season there is usually less rainfall, and the alfalfa 
grows up with a much smaller stem and correspond- 
ingly larger leaf surface. With early cuttings of 
alfalfa, the excessive bulk prevents a fattening hog 
from getting all the protein he requires. If he is 
forced to consume a proportion of hay sufficiently 



288 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

large for protein needs — by having it first cut in 
pieces and then mixed with corn meal — his limited 
digestive capacity is such that, although he is full 
fed, lie is undernourished. The small stem and 
leafy character of the last cutting overcome this 
difficulty. It can be fed to good advantage in the 
proportion, three pounds of corn to one 'of alfalfa, 
though with the rack the pigs get all they wish, 
which will amount to about 3 or 4 to i of corn. 

Hay Rack for Hogs. — Alfalfa hay is very com- 
monly scattered upon the ground for hogs, but this 
practice occasions considerable waste of valuable 
material, especially when the ground is soft and 
muddy. Better results may be secured by provide 
ing suitable racks. The illustration below shows a 
form of rack which has proved to be a success in 
every respect. The rack was designed by H. W. 
Davis Jr., a former student of the writer, for 
feeding fourth-cutting alfalfa hay to hogs which are 
following corn-fed cattle. Although the hogs have 
all the corn they will take, there is seldom a time 
when some are not seen eating hay from this self- 
feeding rack, and they no doubt consume all that 
is needed. 




The Davis Self-Feeding Hay Kacl< for Pigs— F. H. Smith Est., Ad- 
dison, Michigan. 



290 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

Mr. Davis in forwarding a description of the rack 
says: "If built as indicated I am sure that it will 
prove a success. I have used mine for two seasons 
and, although it is small, I have fed several tons 
through it with very little waste and almost no 
bother. The rack may be of any length. It should 
not be more than 3 or 3J/2 feet wide, as the alfalfa 
will lodge in the center. Do not have the fencing 
board at the bottom more than 9 inches from the 
top to the ground; if higher, the hogs will get their 
fore feet into the rack in trying to reach over it. 
The 2x4 at the bottom of the hopper should be six 
inches from outside line of corner posts and at the 
bottom 14 inches from the floor of the rack, or 18 
inches from the ground." 

Clover Hay for Hogs. — There is no reason why 
farmers in the clover belt should not be able to feed 
clover in the same way. With this legume, as with 
alfalfa, the short, fine hay is superior for hogs. If 
the first cutting of clover, as of alfalfa, is fed, much 
more will be wasted because of its coarseness, and 
coarser hay would also move downward with less 
freedom in such a rack, unless the sides are built 
straight up and down. In sections of heavy rain- 
fall some sort of roof protection would be desirable. 
Inasmuch as hay may be put in a self-feeding rack 
at intervals of several days, the labor-saving item is 
no small one. AVith such a rack, hogs may have 
hay before them at all times. In addition to the 
hay, fattening hogs should be .supplied with all the 
corn that will be consumed readily twice a day. 

Most Profitable Weight to Market. — At just what 
weight the pig can be most profitably marketed is 
a question which has given rise to considerable dif- 
ference of opinion. Some hold that the hog should 
be fed until a weight of 350 to 400 pounds has been 
attained, while others go to the opposite extreme, 



FATTENING PIGS IN WINTER. 29I 

advocating the sale of hogs before 200 pounds have 
been reached. In formulating any conclusions con- 
cerning the best time to market, there are two 
things which should be given consideration: (i) 
market quotations on pigs of various weights ; (2) 
the economy of gains at different stages of growth. 
Since vegetable oils have come into use as lard sub- 
stitutes, resulting in lower prices for the latter 
commodity and less prestige for the heavy hog, the 
well-finished 200 to 250-pound hog is now quite as 
much in favor and brings about as much per pound 
as the 350 to 400-pound hog. From the viewpoint 
of gains for food consumed, the lighter hog has a 
distinct advantage, as shown by the following table, 
compiled by Henry, of Wisconsin, and published in 
"Feeds and Feeding." » 

Data Relative to Feed, Weight and Gain of Pigs 
— AIanv American Stations. 



Weight of pigs 5 ^^1 -i: 

in pounds. 






°=ja i-li etc pS 9^'^ ?~ ?-" = 
a^ .S2 .^'S _.§ %^.^ ■ a- ""2 

^ ti fiiT'cc'S k5 -fo "-5 jrS "3"^ 

<:.;^oo -^ c > <v 

<JZ.-E-H < '^ < fc- 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

15 to 50 38 9 41 174 2.23 5.95 .76 293 

50 to 100. 78 13 100 417 3.35 4.32 .83 400 

100 to 150 128 13 119 495 4.79 3.75 LIO 437 

150 to 200 174 11 107 489 5.91 3.43 1.24 482 

"00 10 250 226 12 72 300 6.57 2.91 1.33 498 

250 to 300 .271 8 46 223 7.40 2.74 1.46 511 

300 to 350 320 3 19 105 7.50 2.35 1.40 535 

Referring to the last column of the above table, 
it will be seen that as the pig grows larger, more 
food is required for a given gain. This seems en- 
tirely reasonable in view of the fact, that the larger 



2g2 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

the hog, the more food is required for maintenance ; 
by which is meant more food to keep the body 
warm, force the blood to circulate, and maintain 
other functional activities commensurate with 
larger size, all of which requirements are made 
at the expense of actual increase in weight from 
food consumed. The smaller the pig the less food 
is required for a given gain. Yet it is not profitable 
to kill an animal too young, because of the initial 
cost at birth. Everything considered, it would seem 
that the pig should be marketed at a weight some- 
where between 200 and 250 pounds for maximum 
profits. 

The above table is of further interest in that it 
shows how large a daily ration pigs at different 
weights should consume, arbd the gain per day 
which might reasonably be expected under average 
conditions. Pigs thin in flesh would, of course, con- 
sume larger amounts than stated and would gain 
more accordingly. 




Pens l-.r Winter Pig-feeding Tests, Nebraslsa Experiment Station. 



CHAPTER XXVin. 

CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR SWINE. 

Throughout the corn belt of the United States, 
corn is almost entirely depended upon for pig feed- 
ing. While no feed has yet been found which has 
proved superior to corn properly fed, yet there are 
occasional years when certain other grains are cheap 
enough to be serviceable for the production of pork. 
On most farms, too, it is advisable to grow certain 
other grains in the crop rotation. In the semiarid 
districts small grains are better able to stand the 
dry weather than corn, and such grains are there- 
fore oftentimes cheaper for feeding purposes. 

Barley, which is grown to a considerable extent 
in Northern latitudes and the extreme West, is of 
two kinds, the bald varieties and the common. The 
latter has a hull and is much less valuable for pig 
feeding. Though classed as a starchy food, barley 
contains a higher percentage of protein than corn, 
and it is probably this fact which shows barley to be 
slightly superior to corn when each is fed alone. At 
those stations where each was supplemented by shorts 
and skim milk, the corn proved to be better than 
barley. 

Millet seed, which yielded at the rate of 30 bush- 
els to the acre at the South Dakota Experiment Sta- 
tion, was fed to pigs in comparison with wheat and 
with barley. In this test one pound of wheat proved 
equivalent to i.oi pounds barley and to 1.22 pounds 
millet seed. Millet weighs 56 pounds to the bushel 
and barley 48. Each yielded in pork the same price 
per bushel.. 

293 



294 PROFITAULE STOCK FEEDING. 

Wheat can be grown in a drier climate than corn, 
and in snch locaHties is frequently fed. In 
feeding wheat to swine it should be first ground or 
soaked, for the kernels are so small and hard that 
many will pass through the alimentary tract undi- 
gested if fed dry and unground. At the Nebraska 
Station it was found that there was a saving of lo 
per cent of whole dry wheat by grinding it, and a 
saving of 8 per cent by soaking it from i8 to 24 
hours. Soaking was most profitable because of the 
greater expense of grinding. In the same experiment 
it was found that ground wheat gave 9 per cent larger 
gains than ground corn. This may be due to the fact 
that wheat, with its somewhat higher protein con- 
tent, is more nearly balanced than corn alone. A 
Utah test showed an advantage for wheat until pea- 
meal was added to corn to furnish more protein, 
when the latter proved just as valuable. After re- 
viewing a large number of experiments with "'".heat 
feeding, it seems safe to assert that wheat is about 
3 per cent ahead of corn, pound for pound, when 
each is fed separately ; but properly supplemented, 
corn is just as good. 

Wheat screenings can often be had at a price 
below that of corn, and if of good quality, consist- 
ing of cracked and shrunken kernels with no dirt, 
they are very nearly equal to corn. Screenings 
should also be soaked or ground. 

Frosted wheat is entirely satisfactory for pigs. 
Tests at the Central Experiment Farm of Canada 
show frosted wheat very near!}- equal to the un- 
frosted. 

Rye is not as well relished by pigs as is wheat. 
Since the two grains are similar in composition, 
the greater palatability of wheat no doubt explains 
why better gains are made on wheat than on rye. From 
comparatiA'e tests made, it seems conservative to say 



CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR PIGS. 295 

that wheat has a feeding value about lo per cent 
greater than rye. Like wheat, rye should either be 
ground or soaked when fed. 

Kafir Corn. — At the Kansas Experiment Station, 
where Kafir corn has been grown for a series of 
years, it has been found to average 55 bushels per 
acre — 25 per cent more than common Indian corn. 
Farther west than Manhattan, in dry sections, the. 
difference would be still greater. In pig feeding 
tests at Kansas, when corn meal was compared 
with Kafir corn meal, it was found that one pound 
of corn was equivalent to 1.17 pounds of Kafir corn. 
When each was fed with 33 per cent soy bean meal, 
a rich protein food, one pound of corn and soy bean 
meal was equivalent to 1.07 pounds of Kafir corn 
and soy bean meal, but when soy bean meal was 
made 20 per cent of the ration, one pound of Kafir 
corn meal was equal to i.g6 pounds of cornmeal. 
Kafir corn, like common corn, is deficient in protein, 
and it has also a constipating effect, both of which 
faults soy bean meal or oil meal will correct. On 
account of the small size and hardness of the seeds, 
it is advisable to grind or thoroughly soak Kafir corn 
before feeding. 

Cane, or sorghum, seed is very similar to Kafir 
corn in composition and it should be fed in the same 
way. The Kansas experiments show cane seed to be 
somewhat inferior to Kafir corn for pig feeding. 

Oats. — For feeding market hogs, oats are ordi- 
narily too expensive in comparison with corn, and 
for fattening hogs they contain altogether too much 
hull, which is largely indigestible matter. Oats are 
fairly good for brood sows, provided they can be 
had at a price per hundred no greater than corn. For 
young pigs they are not satisfactory, owing to their 
bulk, unless fed in a very limited qviantity. 

Emmer, conimonly called Speltz, has been used 



296 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

in pig-feeding tests at the North Platte (Nebraska) 
Substation, where it was found to have a food value 
considerably below corn and below barley. It con- 
tains rather too much hull for fattening pigs. 

Potatoes contain from 75 to 80 per cent water 
and the remainder is largely starch. Considering the 
starch content, potatoes would properly be consid- 
ered a corn substitute. Owing to their large water 
content, they are in reality too bulky for pigs, unless 
the water is first driven out by cooking. From ex- 
periments conducted at the Wisconsin Experiment 
Station, it would seem that one pound of corn is 
equivalent to about 4^/2 pounds of uncooked pota- 
toes. This agrees closely with experiments made 
in Denmark. It would not be profitable, therefore, 
to feed potatoes if they are more than one-fourth 
the price of corn per bushel. . 

Jerusalem artichokes, like potatoes, grow under- 
ground as tubers, and are sometimes planted for pigs. 
At the Missouri Experiment Station they were found 
to be the equivalent of potatoes. Not having more 
than one-fourth the food value of corn, they are hardly 
competitors of this cereal for economic pork produc- 
tion, though they are valuable for brood sows and 
growing pigs. 

Sugar beets at the Colorado Experiment Station 
proved little more than a maintenance ration when fed 
alone. With grain they were worth $1.50 per ton. It 
was therefore concluded that any succulence needed 
for growing pigs could be furnished more cheaply 
in grass. Sugar beet pulp gave a gain equivalent to 
that from sugar beets, and, as indicated by the test, 
would seem to be worth as much per ton. Sugar beet 
pulp, if made not more than one-fourth the grain ra- 
tion by weight for pigs, should give better results 
than corn alone. 

Corn silage, like roots, is very watery and there- 



CORN SUnSTITUTliS FOR PIGS. 297 

fore somewhat too bulky for fattening pigs unless fed 
in verv small quantity — not more than one-fourth the 
ration. For brood sows a larger proportion could be 
fed. Corn silage is most satisfactory for sows giving 
milk, as its succulence seems to have the efTect of 
stimulating the flow, which is especially desirable when 
a large litter is being raised. A brood sow could easily 
consume equal parts by weight of silage and grain, 
but the grain part in that case would necessarily be 
made up of sufBcient protein food to supply the needs 
of the sow. Moreover, this protein food should be 
of a concentrated nature, like shorts or oil meal, 
rather than clover or alfalfa, since the silage pro- 
vides all the bulk that can be utilized.- Corn silage 
is even more deficient in protein than corn. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

PROTEIN CONCENTRATES AND THE PREP- 
ARATION OF FOODS FOR SWINE. 

Feeds Supplementary to Corn for Pigs. — In the 

preceding chapters on pig feeding, the use of corn 
has been described in more or less detail. As already 
stated, this is done because corn is almost entirely de- 
pended upon as the basic part of the ration, owing to 
its relative cheapness. Should there be occasion for 
feeding any of the so-called corn substitutes, . the 
method of supplementing them would be similar to 
the methods described for corn, the only difference 
being the amount, or proportion, of supplementary food 
used. None of these corn substitutes will require a 
larger proportion of protein foods than that recom- 
mended for corn ; in fact, most of them require less, 
because they contain a higher percentage of protein. 
Wheat and rye, as noted by the chart on page 27, 
have nutritive ratios very near to requirements for 
fattening mature hogs. In the use of such foods for 
pig feeding, not more than one-half the proportion 
of protein or supplementary foods recommended for 
use with corn is needed. For example, where a 
ration of 88 per cent corn and 12 per cent oil meal 
is suggested, 94 per cent wheat or rye and 6 per cent 
oil meal would furnish approximately the same 
nutrients. Barley would need a little more oil meal 
than wheat, because it contains less protein. Kafir 
corn should be supplemented in the same manner as 
corn. 

As previously stated, the choice of protein foods 
to supplement any of these starchy foods depends 
entirely upon their relative efficiency at the current 

298 



CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR PIGS. 299 

market price. The efficiency of each is largely a 
question of protein content. As with starchy foods, 
palatability is a factor in measuring the value of a 
protein food, but any slight diflference in the palata- 
bility of such concentrated foods is less noticeable 
in the ration because of the small proportion used. 
Since it is the practice to base the value of the 
so-called protein foods very largely upon the per- 
centage of digestible protein contained, figuring 
upon this basis, we shall assume clover to be worth 
$5.00 per ton, then alfalfa is worth $8.00, cowpea 
hay $8.00, wheat shorts $9.00, wheat bran $9.00. 
Canadian peas $12.50, cowpeas $13.60, skim milk 
$2.10, soy beans $21.70, oil meal (old process) $21.50, 
gluten meal $19.00, tankage $22.00, dried blood 
$38.00. In computing the value of tankage per 
ton it is assumed that the coefficient of digestibility 
of the protein is the same as in dried blood. 

But to get a more nearly correct estmiate of the 
relative' worth of these foods, some value must be 
given to the carbohydrates and fats found in each. 
This value should not be more than the actual cost 
of carbohydrates as found in corn, their cheapest 
source. Assuming fats to be 2.25 times as valuable 
as carbohydrates (their heat ratio), and placing 
upon each pound of digestible carbohydrates in ex- 
cess of what is contained in clover a valuation of one- 
half cent, the relative value per ton of each food- 
stuff would then be, clover $5.00, alfalfa $8.00, cow- 
pea hay $8.00, bran $9.00, shorts $10.00, Canadian 
peas $13.80, cowpeas $15.30, skim milk $2.10, soy 
beans $23.30, gluten meal $23.00, oil meal $22.50, 
tankage $23.00, dried blood $38.00. 

However, the work of masticating the unground 
peas and beans, and the still greater energy expended 
in grinding the hay, would place these foodstuffs 
somewhat below the prices quoted. Just what esti- 



300 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

mate sliould be made for mechanical condition it is 
difficult to say. If it pays to grind grains at a cost 
of 5 cts. per hundred, and to reduce hay to the same 
condition at a cost of 15 cts. per hundred, then it 
would be necessary to add approximately $1.00 
per ton to the value of bran (a coarse food), Ca- 
nadian peas, cowpeas and soy beans, and $3.00 
per ton to the value of the more concentrated 
shorts, oil meal, gluten meal, tankage and dried 
blood. The value of skim milk would also be in- 
creased at least 70 cts. per ton. The work of Zuntz 
in Germany and of Armsby in America indicates 
that from 40 to 50 per cent more energy is expended 
in masticating coarse fodders than grains, and a dif- 
ference of $3.00 per ton for texture, or condition, 
would seem to be conservative. In the writer's opin- 
ion these additions would more nearly represent the 
true comparative values of the several foodstufifs for 
supplementing corn, at least for such animals as pigs, 
w^hich are not equipped to utilize bulky foods in 
quantity. Then with this second revision of compara- 
tive values, taking into consideration, as we have, tex- 
ture of foodstufifs, but not palatability. yet assuming 
all to be of. good quality, the final estimate, with 
clover at $5.00 a ton, would make alfalfa worth 
$8.00, cowpea hay $8.00, bran $11.00, shorts $13.00, 
Canadian peas $14.80, cowpeas $16.30, skim milk 
$2.80, soy beans $25.30, gluten meal $26.00. oil 
meal $25.50, tankage $26.00 and dried blood $41.00. 
Zvmtz, the German investigator, found that one- 
sixth of the total nutrients in linseed meal was used 
by the horse in the work of mastication and one-half 
of those in clover hay. This would mean a higher 
value for the concentrates than given. Owing to 
the fact that foodstuffs under different conditions 
vary slightly in composition and digestibility, it 
would be foliy to use the above scale with the idea 



CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR PIGS, 3OI 

that it is mathematically correct. It is simply 
introduced as a sort of guide for the feeder in his 
effort to secure the foodstufif most useful at the 
market price. When cost is being considered, 
the purchaser must figure on relative prices de- 
livered at the farm. In case of a long haul from 
station to farm, the more concentrated foodstuffs 
would have the advantage. In supplying any of 
these with corn to fattening hogs, figuring upon a 
basis of digestible protein content, there would be 
required 40 per cent of the ration clover, or 28 per 
cent alfalfa, 28 per cent coAvpea hay, 25 per cent 
shorts, 25 per cent bran, 20 per cent Canadian peas, 
18 per cent cowpeas, 10 per cent oil meal, 10 per cent 
gluten meal, 10 per cent soy bean meal, 10 per cent 
tankage, or 6 per cent dried blood. With the per- 
centage of each as stated, the remainder being corn, 
we have what would be under average W^estern con- 
ditions a good fattening ration for hogs, though 
a little too much bulk in the case of clover, al- 
falfa and cowpea hay. These supplementary foods 
have all been described in the chapters on cattle feed- 
ing, except tankage and dried, blood, both of which 
are more relished by swine than by cattle or sheep, 
and are more successfully used with swine. 

Tankage is described in Bulletin 65, issued by 
the Iowa Experiment Station, as follows : "Digester 
tankage is made from meat scraps, fat trimmings and 
scrap bones. These are taken up as fast as taken from 
the animals and put into, a large steel tank and 
cooked under a live steam pressure of 40 
pounds to the square inch, which cooks out 
the tallow. After the steam is turned ofif, it 
is allowed to settle, when the grease rises to the 
top and is drawn ofif. After the grease is drawn ofif 
the tankage is kept agitated and by evaporation the 
water is extracted until the tankage contains about 8 



302 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

per cent moisture. It is then taken out of the tank, 
allowed to cool, is ground and stored ready for ship- 
ment." 

Dried blood is simply the blood from slaughtered 
animals dried to a powder. In the process of drying, 
sufficient heat is applied to kill any disease germs which 
may be present in the blood. Both tankage and dried 
blood must be kept dry. If moistened by rain, putre- 
faction begins, and the feed gives off an offensive 
odor, making it not only disagreeable to handle but 
unpalatable to the animals. Owing to the concen- 
tration of these foods, they must be used with great 
care. If too much is fed, it is not only expensive, 
but harmful to the animals. If not carefully mixed 
with grain, some pigs may get more than is needed 
and some not enough. Neither tankage nor dried 
blood should be put to soak several hours before 
feeding. 

The value of these foods depends largely upon their 
quality. Generally speaking, though not always, -the 
packing houses are careful to put on sale for feeding 
purposes only that which is suitable. The inferior 
material is usually sold for fertilizing purposes. At 
the Indiana Experiment Station corn alone was com- 
pared with a mixture of 84 per cent corn and 16 per 
cent tankage and another mixture of 91 per cent corn 
and 9 per cent tankage. When 16 per cent tankage 
was fed, 39 per cent less feed was required for a 
pound of gain than with corn alone, and when 9 per 
cent tankage was fed, 35 per cent less feed was re- 
quired. With corn worth $20.00 per ton and tankage 
worth $30.00, one hundred pounds of gain on corn 
alone cost $5.20; on corn and 16 per cent tankage, 
$4.00 ; and on corn and 9 per cent tankage, $3.80. At 
the Iowa Experiment Station 30 per cent less feed 
was required with corn and 16 per cent tankage 
than with corn alone. With corn worth $22.00 per 



CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR PIGS. 303 

ton and tankage $32.00 per ton, the cost of produ- 
cing gains was 12 per cent less than on corn alone. 
From the results of these and other experiments, 
it seems evident that at ordinary Western prices 
tankage may be most profitably fed when it consti- 
tutes not over lO per cent of the ration, the remain- 
der being corn. 

Mangel-wurzels and Rutabagas are much richer 
in protein than sugar beets, and may be considered as 
protein foods. Owing to the fact that they contain 
90 per cent water, they are too bulky for fattening 
hogs. For brood sows suckling pigs they are excel- 
lent, stimulating, as do sugar beets, "a good flow of milk 
for the nourishment of the pigs. While corn silage 
serves this purpose at a much less expense, when it is 
fed, protein must be supplied from other sources. 
Where land is high-priv",ed and labor not too costly, 
roots are entirely practical, for breeding stock at 
least. 

Condimental stock foods are said to contain prop- 
erties which make them useful adjuncts to grain for 
swine feeding. As mentioned in the chapters on the 
dairy cow, emphasis is made of the fact that they 
have a medicinal efl^ect which stimulates the flow of 
digestive fluids, rendering more food digestible. At 
the Indiana Experiment Station 2^^ per cent of a 
mixed grain ration for pigs was American Stock 
Food. The cost of producing gains on this ration 
was 15 per cent greater than the same ration with- 
out stock food. At the Iowa Experiment Station 
it was found that corn alone produced gains at a 
cost of 2 per cent more than corn and Standard 
Stock Food, and 12 per cent more than corn and 
tankage. It would seem, therefore, that a ration of 
corn alone, a very unbalanced one, is slightly im- 
proved by the addition of a little stock food ; but no 
supplemental food is more costly to buy. The 



304 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

prices paid for condimental stock foods are out of all 
proportion to any food value they may possess for 
swine as well as other classes of stock. 

Grinding Grain for Swine. — From experiments 
made with pigs in which ground and unground corn 
were compared, it would seem that grinding does 
not pay under all conditions. The results of experi- 
ments made at the Kentucky, Missouri and Ohio 
Experiment Stations show on an average a saving 
of 7 per cent of the corn by grinding. The results 
of four experiments at the Wisconsin Station show 
a saving of 8 per cent by grinding. Even with this 
most favorable showing for grinding corn, it would 
not pay in the West, where corn is relatively low in 
price. A saving of 8 per cent by grinding would 
be 8 pounds out of loo. Eight pounds of corn is 
not ordinarily worth in the West the price charged 
for grinding," which is from 6 to 8 cents per hun- 
dred, to say nothing of the cost of labor in hauling 
the corn to the mill and handling it. Wherever the 
pig is able to grind grain for himself, it is un- 
doubtedly an extravagance to use artificial power. 
The mechanism of the animal is much more perfect 
than that of the machine. It has been determined 
that the horse can convert into work 34 per cent of 
the available energy of food, besides that needed 
for body maintenance. It requires a very efficient 
steam engine to convert into work a per cent one- 
third as great. Moreover, the animal is its own engi- 
neer, working without pay, and having an abundance 
of time at his disposal. With corn high in price or 
with cheap power, grinding may pay, or if it is 
desirable to mix a concentrated food like tankage 
with corn, grinding will be an advantage because 
it makes a better medium for diluting the tank- 
age. In feeding small, hard grains like wheat, rye, 



CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR PIGS. 305 

etc., grinding is practicable unless soaking can be 
done conveniently. 

Wet versus Dry Meal. — ]\Ieal is better fed 
moistened than dry, because more can be con- 
sumed. The average of tests made at the Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin, Oregon and Missouri Experi- 
ment Stations shows that 7 per cent larger gains 
were made by feeding meal wet than by feeding it 
dry. Unlike cattle and sheep, hogs have a rela- 
tively large intestinal capacity, which gives them 
a more active starch digestion in the intestine, mak- 
ing the mixture of saliva in the mouth less im- 
portant with them than with these other animals. 
Wet feed is not in favor for cattle and sheep. 

Soaking Grain for Pigs. — In a winter experiment 
conducted by the writer, it was found that gy^ 
per cent of whole wheat was saved by first soaking 
it from eighteen to twenty-four hours. During 
freezing weather warm water was used. Soak- 
ing the wheat gave very nearly as large gains from 
the same consumption of food as grinding it, and 
proved to be more economical because of the less 
expense incurred, a point more recently confirmed 
by the Missouri Station. All grains are undoubt- 
edly made more easily digested by first being 
soaked. During hot summer weather it is some- 
times best not to soak longer than twelve hours on 
account of souring, though pigs do not object to 
some acidity. 

Cooking Feed for Swine. — The average results 
from twenty se])arate tests made at eight experi- 
ment stations show an actual loss of 9 per cent 
of the food by cooking. Were the labor involved 
to be considered, the loss would be considerably 
more than indicated. The diminished feeding value 
of food when cooked may be partially explained 
by the fact that the protein coagulated by heat 



306 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

is made less digestible, just as the albumen of the 
hard boiled egg is less digestible than that of the 
soft boiled egg. In the experiments made with 
cooked feed it was furthermore found that less was 
consumed. Potatoes, which contain but little pro- 
tein, are undoubtedly improved by being cooked, 
because cooking breaks up the tough starch cells. 
Warming feed in cold weather is no doubt a good 
practice. 

Charcoal and Ashes for Pigs. — It is always ad- 
visable to provide pigs with a box containing 
charcoal and ashes, in which has been mixed a lit- 
tle slaked lime and salt. This is especially im- 
portant in winter when the ground is frozen. It is 
even more important when the ration consists large- 
ly of corn, which, as has been said, is deficient in 
mineral ingredients. 

Disinfectants. — It is an excellent plan to occa- 
sionally sprinkle a weak solution of carbolic acid, 
zenoleum, chloro-naptholeum, or some other disin- 
tectant about the pens, on the bedding, etc. This 
will lessen the risk from germ disease. 

Dipping for Lice. — Where pigs are kept in con- 
siderable numbers it will pay the farmer to have a 
dipping plant, ^^^ith such an equipment the herd 
may be run through a disinfecting solution at inter- 
vals to kill lice, at the same time lessening the risk 
from contagious diseases. Vermin, unless kept in 
check, give no little trouble, and prevent the mak- 
ing of the largest possible gains. Spraying with a 
pump may be done, but the work is much more 
thorougli and satisfactory when the dipping tank 
is used. Such a tank can be purchased for a mod- 
erate sum and in a very short time will pay for 
itself. 

Cleanliness in the Pens. — Pig-pens are too often 
neglected because of the prevailing notion that pigs 



CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR PIGS. 307 

do just as well surrounded with a certain amount 
of filth, and to many people the pig is a disagree- 
able object because of such conditions. This is a 
mistaken notion. The farmer Ayill be abundantly 
paid for his trouble by keeping his pens clean and 
well bedded, for pigs with such care will not only 
grow faster and be less subject to disease, but will 
be far more desirable tenants on the farm. 

Fresh Water. — Tliis should be supplied in 
troughs, or, better still, in some of the approved 
drinking fountains. If the water can be warmed 
during cold weather, feed will be saved, as the pig, 
not having the natural protection other farm ani- 
mals have, is easily chilled by cold water. 

Exercise. — Experiments have been conducted 
which show that pigs running at will in lots or fields 
do better than those kept closely confined. All 
hogs do better if given some exercise, though less is 
needed with mature hogs than with pigs, which are 
developing bone and muscle. As previously men- 
tioned, a lack of exercise is one cause of the disease 
called "thumps" in young pigs. 



PART VI 

FARM POULTRY 

By Mary L. Smith, 
CHAPTER XXX. 
TYPES OF FOWLS. 

Chickens the Most Practical Branch of Poultry 
Husbandry for the Farm. — Xo farm equipment is 
complete witliout poultry of some kind, not only be- 
cause they are economical producers, but also be- 
cause they consume refuse from the kitchen and 
granaries which even pigs cannot utilize. By them 
insects of various kinds are converted into delicious 
meat and eggs for the farmer's table or for the mar- 
ket, returning their equivalent in money. 

Since this volume is for the farmer, the subject 
of poultry raising will be presented entirely from 
the farmer's point of view. The raising of ducks 
for the market, chickens known as broilers, squabs, 
etc., are, for the most part, branches of poultry 
farming rather than of general farming, and are 
not adaptable to all farms in every locality. 
But eggs., besides being a most convenient source 
of protein food and the best meat substitute at the 
farmer's disposal, are a condensed product that can 
be produced and transported with profit from 
points far distant from our large markets. While 
it is undoubtedly profitable to raise chickens 
to sell for meat as other stock on the farm 
is sold — for it costs no more to make a pound of 
gain on the chicken than on the hog or sheep or 

J09 



310 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

beef steer — it is equally certain that at our Western 
markets there is at present more money in eggs 
than in meat. Since man has succeeded, by 
selection and breeding, in increasing the laying 
capacity of the domestic hen from 40 eggs a year to 
from 150 to 200 or more, and since by investigation 
and experiments in the science of feeding and care 
he has made it possible for her to produce a goodly 
number of those eggs in winter when eggs are high, 
it is the farmer's opportunity to employ this means 
of adding to the earnings of the farm. "Chores" 
in winter make up the principal part of the farmer's 
work. It is when the care of the fowls becomes a 
part of the chores as important as looking after the 
other stock, that the farmer will see the practical 
side of the subject ; and as soon as he becomes truly 
interested in these feathered friends of his, he will 
find the "poultry chores" the pleasantest of his 
daily tasks. 

In summer the farmer's wife or daughters usu- 
ally do the lighter work connected with the poul- 
try, expecting the men to take time for only such 
heavier tasks as the cleaning of the houses, the 
making of crops, feeding-racks, etc. This out-of- 
door work is most beneficial, both to the women 
and to the chickens. Women, as a general thing, 
are painstaking and faithful in their care of little 
chickens, and are usually successful, if their judg- 
ment is as good as their intentions and if they are 
provided with conveniences for caring for them. 
These are not expensive. Many of them simply 
require a little time from a man handy with saw 
and hammer. Then, too, it is of the utmost impor- 
tance to the farmer that the children of the house- 
hold be allowed to help with the poultry 
so that they may become interested in the 
creatures around them, learning early in life to be 



TYPES OF FOWLS. 3II 

gentle and kind, and to consider the comfort and 
welfare of the dumb animals upon the farm. 

Classification of Fowls. — With respect to utility, 
chickens are divided into three classes, laying fowls, 
general-purpose, and meat fowls. It will be well 
first to describe these classes, as type is a factor in 
the profitable feeding of poultry, as we'll as of other 
classes of animals. If the farmer wishes hens which 
will lay the greatest number of eggs m a year from 
the least amount of food, he will find it well to 
choose one of the laying breeds. These are called 
the Mediterranean class, because typical birds are 
supposed to have come originally from the Medi- 
terranaen coast. If he desires fowls which will fur- 
nish more meat and which will, also, with the right 
kind of treatment, lay many eggs, it will be better 
for him to select one of the general-purpose breeds. 
But if his chief object is meat, then one from the 
Asiatic class will best suit his purpose. 

Class I. Laying, or Mediterranean, Breeds. — 
It is the active, sprightly, alert hen that lays 
the most eggs — the one first out in the morn- 
ing and the one last on the roost at night. Of these 
Mediterranean birds, the Leghorn and the Minorca 
are most popular. The Minorca lays a larger egg 
than the Leghorn. The White and Bufif Leghorns, 
some Leghorn breeders claim, lay larger eggs than 
the other varieties. However that may be, the 
Leghorn — Black, Buff, Brown or White — as bred 
today, lays a much larger egg than the Leghorn 
of a decade or two ago. The White-faced Black 
Spanish lays a large white egg, but this fowl is not 
so popular as formerly, probably because the Mi- 
norca, which has Spanish blood in its veins, has 
crowded the older bird from its place. Here, too, 
the Andalusian and the Hamburg may be men- 
tioned, for they have been tried as egg producers 



312 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



and have not been found wanting. The former is 
a beantifnl bird, if one has not the waning Ameri- 
can prejudice against white skin and dark shanks; 
and the latter in its different varieties is worthy ot 
its many admirers. The egg of the Hamburg is 
smaller than that of the Leghorn. As these fowls 



-■% 



■•*H^^; 



x% •■i- ".If 




r>aying Type — Single Comb Brown Leghorns. 

are so-called "non-sitters," the farmer who has 
them must either use incubators or keep some of 
the broody types for sitters and mothers. The lat- 
ter may easily be done by selecting from Classes 
II and III hens which lay brown eggs, since the 
eggs of these Mediterranean fowls are pure white. 
Class II, Of the general-purpose breeds, the 
Plymouth Rocks are the oldest and best known. Many 
people prefer the Barred to the BufT or White Plym- 
outh Rock, because of the beaut}^ and oddity of the 



TYPES OF FOWLS. 



313 



l)luinage. The Wyandotte, a bird in many respects 
similar to the Plymouth Rock, leans perhaps a trifle 
more toward the egg-producing type. Though 
there is no Barred species here, there are many 
beautiful varieties to choose from, as the Silver- 
laced, Golden-laced, Black, White, and Bufif. Color 
is, however, more a matter of individual taste than 
anything else, though there may at any time be 
strains of one color or variety of a breed superior to 




General-purpose Type — Single Comb Buff Orpingtons. 

strains of some other color or -variety. The Rhode 
Island Reds and the Orpingtons are among the 
newest of this class, and they are proving them- 
selves splendid utility fowls. Of the Orpingtons, 
the Bufif seems to be the favorite in America, 
though the White and the Black are beautiful birds, 
the latter being thought by some to be hardier 
than the others. Hens from this class are good sit- 
ters and excellent mothers. 



314 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



Class III. Meat Fowls, also Called Asiatic. — 
These are the largest of all fowls. To this 
group belong the Brahmas, the Langshans and 
the Cochins. These birds are gentle and tame, 
very pleasant to handle, and with proper care 
the pullets and young hens will produce many eggs ; 
yet this very docility and sluggishness of disposi- 
tion make them less prolific egg prodvice'rs than 
the smaller and more active breeds. They will, 
however, dress more pounds for the market. The 




Meat Type — Partridge Cochins. 

flesh is juicy and sweet, and in some localities near 
our large cities, especially those of the Eastern sea- 
board, birds of this class are very profitable. These 
fowls are by natural disposition good sitters and 
mothers, but their great size, with its conseciuent 
awkwardness, sometimes interferes with their value 
in this respect. There is, however, no better moth- 
er in "chickendom" than a good Cochin, Brahma, 
or Lansshan hen or half-breed. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

RAISING LITTLE CHICKS. 

When to Set the Eggs. — It is, of course, the rais- 
ing of the Httle chicks that forms the foundation of 
our success with pouUry. To get good winter 
layers we must set the eggs at the proper time, 
whether we use for this purpose incubators or hens. 
It is from the pullets that the greatest number of win- 
ter eggs are to come. They must be hatched so they 
will be ready to begin laying in November or early 
December. Pullets from Class I should begin laying 
from 4J-'2 to 5^ months from time of hatching; from 
Class II, 6 to 7 months; from Class III, 7 to 8 
months. It will be seen that the larger Asiatic 
fowls, to lay in winter, must be hatched earlier in 
the spring than the more rapidly maturing Mediter- 
ranean and general-purpose breeds. This is an 
argument in favor of these latter classes for the 
farm, for the weather is apt to be damp and cold 
in the early spring and the farmer has' not time to 
take the extra precaution necessary to make these 
early hatches a success. 

Sitting Hens. — On many farms incubators are 
now used for hatching chickens, and the directions 
coming with the machines are so complete that 
nothing need be sai'd on that subject. But the ma- 
jority of farmers still rely on the faithful old hen to 
do the incubating. Where such is the case it is 
much more satisfactory to keep sitting hens by 
themselves during the period of incubation. Some 
building not in use in the summer — a corn crib or 
granary will answer very well — may easily be con- 

JI5 



3l6 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

verted into a model incubating room. New, clean 
nest-boxes may be ranged along the wall in one, 
two, or even three tiers. A sod should be cut and 
put in the bottom of the box, or dirt to the depth of 
two or three inches, and the nest of fine hay or 
straw or leaves laid on this, plentifully sprinkled 
with insect powder. This sod or earth should be 
dampened several times during incubation. This 
imitates Nature's plan of a nest upon the ground, 
and is especially beneficial during a dry season. 
Broody hens should be taken from their nests after 
dark and put in these boxes on dummy eggs. Or, if 
nest-boxes are hung on pegs or nails in the hen- 
houses, these may be removed without disturbing 
the hens and hung on pegs in the room for in- 
cubation. The hens may be fastened in for 
a day or two, if thought best, and inspected 
once or twice a day afterward to see that 
all nests are covered ; or the house may be 
made dark and opened only for feeding, etc. At 
one of the state experiment stations a double nest is 
used in a house of this kind, the eggs being put in the 
nest behind. The hen is fastened in with a little lattice 
gate. If she becomes restless before the time comes 
to let her and her companions out for their food, she 
stands by the little gate and her eggs are in no danger 
of being broken. Besides good, wholesome food and 
fresh, clean water, the hens in this house must be 
provided with dust-box, grit, oyster shell and char- 
coal. Chickens when hatched may be taken from 
some of these hens and given to others, the hens be- 
ing reset if they are in 'good condition, with red 
combs, bright eyes, and smooth, glossy plumage. 
The straw should be burned in the nest occasionally 
to make sure there are no mites, and the hens should 
be thoroughly dusted with insect powder every 



RAISING LITTLE CHICKS. 



317 



week during incubation that the httle chicks may 
leave the nest free of lice. 

Shelter for Chicks. — Whether hatches are early 
or late, provision must be made for dry quar- 
ters for young chicks, though the risk is not so 
great with later hatches, because the weather is warmer 
and they will not need to be confined so long. Damp- 
ness, too hot or too cold brooders, and lack of fresh 
air and sunshine are among the chief ca'uses of mor- 
tality among these fluffy little creatures. If incu- 




Kramework of Colony Brooder House, built by students at Cornell 
University, Itliaca, N. Y. 

bators and brooders are used, brooder houses must 
be provided. If hens are to brood the young, they 
must have large, dry, clean coops where they can be 
shut in and the little fellows made contented on 
those long, rainy days that invariably come in the 
spring. If the small, old-fashioned coops are used, 
they may be put in some barn or under some dry shed 
until the weather is settled or until the chickens are 



3l8 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

old enough to go to the hen-house to roost. With 
most breeds it is entirely practical to have coops or 
houses built large enough to accommodate several 
hens with broods of from fifteen to twenty chicks 
each. If all are taken ofif the nests about the same 
time and are kept together from the first, the hens 
will usually live together very amicably. This does 
away with the inconvenience and annoyance aris- 
ing from trying to drive stubborn old biddies into 
little coops at night. They seem to like these 
larger, lighter, more inviting places, and go into 
them of their own accord. Plenty of fresh air and 
light are admitted by using i-inch mesh wire net- 
ting in the front. The chicks learn very early to 
seek refuge from storms in these comfortable places, 
and need almost no looking after when showers come 
up. There are often, too, in summer time on a farm, 
empty barns or stables in which little chicks may be 
"started," and if these places are not needed, the 
chick(?ns may continue to roost in them until fall. Lit- 
tle chicks raised about the barns usually grow rapidly 
and seem to thrive. They are seldom or never troubled 
with bronchitis or catarrh or colds of any kind. If 
the hens are confined in the barns with them for a 
week or so— the length of time depending on the 
weather — they will usually come to the barn to be 
fed at meal time, and are very little trouble. Care 
should be taken to see that barn chickens are sup- 
plied with plenty of pure water, lest they learn to 
drink from pools in the barnyard. 

Remedy for Colds. — Little chicks, through ex- 
posure, often contract colds which cause them to 
sneeze frequently or to breathe with difficulty. All 
such cases should be treated as soon as possible. A 
few drops of kerosene oil injected into the nose and 
throat with a medicine dropper will usually bring im- 
mediate relief, and one or two treatments will effect 



320 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

a cure, if the cause is removed and the bird is in a 
thrifty condition otherwise. Care should be taken 
not to use for breeding stock chickens that have 
been thus afTected. The disease is not roup and is 
not, perhaps, in this form contagious, but a bird 
might transmit the tendency, which in some future 
generation under certain conditions might develop 
into roup. In poultry raising "an ounce of preven- 
tion" is sometimes worth many pounds of cure. 

Lice on Little Chicks. — Should there be any of 
these pests, either the big head-lice or those that in- 
fest the body, chicks should be dipped in some 
good sheep dip or lightly greased on head and 
throat, on the tail bone, about the vent, and under 
the wings with fresh lard or carbolized vaseline or 
sweet oil, to which may be added one or two drops 
of carbolic acid to lOO drops of oil, or sassafras oil 
in the proportion of one ounce of the sassafras to 
six ounces of the sweet oil. The little fellows 
should then be put in some quiet, shady place. Un- 
der no consideration should young poultry of any 
kind be subjected to the hot sun after being greased 
on the head. For this reason the greasing would 
better be done at night. Chicks must be examined once 
a week, and if there are lice — and one must look 
thoroughly — no pains must be spared to get rid of 
them. While some kind of grease seems to be the 
most effectual remedy for the lice on head and 
throat, insect powder is quite sufficient for the body 
lice. Often all that will be necessary is to dust 
the mother hen occasionally or put a little grease 
under her wings. If this is not sufficient, then the 
chicks should be taken one at a time and dipped or 
greased or thoroughly dusted with powder. The 
best remedy for lice, however, as for contagious in- 
digestion or any other disease in the poultry yard 
is absolute cleanliness about the coops and grounds, 



RAISING LITTLE CHICKS. 321 

with disinfectants used frequently. A pail of 
water containing crude carbolic acid and copperas 
makes a cheap and satisfactory disinfectant. White- 
wash containing crude carbolic acid or salt is ex- 
cellent, especially if applied hot. "Zenoleum," Lam- 
bert's "Death to Lice," Lee's "Louse Killer," and 
other preparations on the market are convenient 
and give good results. 

Feeding Little Chicks. — Food should not be given 
little chicks within at least twenty-four hours 
from time of hatching. Some poultry men do 
not feed for seventy-two hours. The reason 
for this is, of course, that Nature has provided a 
means of sustenance for the young chick until lie 
has strength to help himself, by causing the ab- 
sorption, through the navel into the abdomen, of a 
portion of the egg designed for the purpose. There 
are two methods of feeding little chickens : one, 
moist food : the other, dry food. Each has its ad- 
vantages. 

I, Dry Food. — There is, perhaps, less mortality 
among these tiny infants when dry food is fed, espe- 
cially if the season is wet. There are excellent foods 
upon the market consisting of a variety of whole- 
some grains, which may be used by the farmer to 
start his chicks. These mixed grains, with milk to 
drink and meat scraps occasionally, make a balanced 
ration upon which little chicks will thrive and grow. 
The farmer can make a mixture of grains himself, of 
rolled or pinhead oats, cracked wheat, barley, buck- 
wheat, cracked corn (Kafir corn is considered best 
for small chicks), millet, hemp, and other small seeds. 
In a short time the wheat may be given whole — screen- 
ings are good for half-grown chickens — the oats 
simply hulled, and the corn more coarsely cracked. 
The necessity of variety in the food of little chicks is 
not, as a usual thing, considered as important upon 



322 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

the farm as it really is. Any one food, however excel- 
lent in itself, if fed exclusively or in excess, will cause 
indigestion in young poultry. Hence, farmers who 
can not conveniently prepare this variety will find 
it economy as well as a convenience to try the food 
prepared by persons who understand the nutritive 
values of various foodstuffs. 

2. Moist Food, — When bread and milk is fed," it 
may be either bread from the table, well soaked 
and at least twenty-four hours old, or "Johnny 
cake" made for the purpose. The bread is simply 
crumbled, or dipped for an instant in milk and then 
squeezed dry. It must be crumbly, never "sloppy" 
nor sticky. To this may be added two or three times 
a week meat scraps or hard boiled eggs — eggs di- 
gestible and mealy, not tough and leathery. These 
may be put through a vegetable or meat grinder, shell 
and all. A raw egg may be beaten in the milk in 
which the bread is moistened. This is especially desir- 
able in* damp, cold weather, when bowel trouble is to 
be feared. At such times it is well, no doubt, to some- 
times add a pinch of ginger or red or black pepper. 
Cottage cheese is an excellent food to give either 
chickens or turkeys occasionally, but not as a 
"steady diet." Cooked rice is also wholesome. 

If bread is to be baked especially for the chicks, 
the following recipe is excellent : 

2 quarts of bran. 

2 quarts of coarse corn meal.' 

1 quart of wheat middlings, or shorts. 

1 handful of good pure beef scrap. 

1 handful of good chicken grit. 

"Rub together dry with from two to four infertile 
eggs. Mix with barely enough skim milk to moisten 
it, and rub the whole into a moist, crumbly mass with 
the hands, then put in a well-greased pan (a roasting 
pan about three inches deep is the best) and press 



RAISING LITTLE CHICKS. 3^3 

down hard to stick the cake together. Bake in a slow 
oven for three to six hours. This makes an easily- 
crumbled cake, and, when properly prepared, should 
liave no stickiness or doughiness about it." Some- 
times a bread of this sort is made without the grit, 
then broken and put in the oven where it is dried 
out. It is then put through a vegetable grinder 
and fed dry or m.oistened with milk. The heat has 
converted the starch into sugar and has made the 
food very digestible. 

As grain must very early become a part of the 
little chick's ration if it is to grow up a strong 
bird with good healthy digestion, it is well to have 
on hand a mixture of small and cracked grains 
similar to that recommended for the dry food chick to 
feed once or twice a day after the first few days. Lit- 
tle chicks fed in this way — especially if they are with 
the hen and have plenty of exercise — if care is 
taken to feed regularly, and not to overfeed, will grow 
with wonderful rapidity. 

Grit. — The importance of grit must not be over- 
looked from the start. Grit in the gizzard of the 
young chick is as necessary for the proper digestion of 
its food as teeth are in the mouth of the young calf 
when he receives his first ration of grain. In the one 
case, Nature has already provided the means for 
mastication ; in the other, it mvist be sought. Those 
poultry raisers who think they can get more rapid 
gains by making l:)read and milk a part of the daily 
ration for the young chick make the first feed in 
the morning bread and milk and sprinkle grit upon 
it every morning for the first ten days or two weeks. 
Many who advocate and use the dry foods, fearing 
the little things will not pick up enough of the grit 
scattered in the litter with their food, for the very 
first feed give bread and milk wdth grit in this way. 
The grit should be either sharp sand or crushed 



324 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

rock. Farmers will find it profitable to buy a sack 
of No. I chick size grit early in the season before 
the first hatch comes off, that this ingredient, which 
Nature in her plan has made a necessity for the 
bird family, shall be within reach at all times. It 
is we'll to be provided with No. 2, also, for the half- 
grown chickens, and later with the largest size. No. 
3, for grown fowls. 

Green Food. — We know, of course, that little 
chicks to "do well" must have some tender, succulent 
green food. On a farm where they have the run of 
blue grass yards and orchards, and clover and alfal- 
fa meadows, this point needs no emphasis ; but 
should they for any reason be deprived of this, the 
lack must be supplied. They should be fed blades 
of grass or sprouted grain, leaves of clover or al- 
falfa, or something from the garden like lettuce 
or cabbage. 

Overfeeding, — The subject of feeding young 
chickens must not be dismissed without a word of 
earnest warning against the error of overfeeding. 
Irregularity and overfeeding, as well as dampness 
and lice, have sometimes worked sad havoc in our 
flocks of little chickens. A safe rule to follow in 
feeding chickens, as in feeding the growing young 
of all animals, is never to feed at any time so much 
but that they would gladly eat a little more. When 
we find our flock of young bjrds indififerent to our 
call when feeding time comes, then our troubles 
are begun. After the little things are nicely started, 
say four or five weeks old. there is not the danger 
to be feared from overfeeding. After that time, one 
may keep food in racks to which the young chick- 
ens may go whenever they like. These racks are 
very convenient, and the farmer's wife wants many 
such things made during the winter when work is 
"slack." They may be made of slats or wire net- 



RAISING LITTLE CHICKS. 325 

ting SO arranged as to prevent the hens and older 
fowls from getting in. A rack four feet square is 
a convenient size. A self-feeder trough, wooden 
tray, or even an old dripping pan or clean board 
may serve as a receptacle for the food. On farms 
where there is no "park" especially for the little 
chickens, these racks are indispensable. 

Water for Young Chickens. — The question of 
how much water to give is not a "mooted" one. 
There is but one answer, and that is, plenty of good, 
pure water or skim milk before the chicks at all 
times. Especially is this true on the farm, whether 
the chickens are, brought up in brooders or go about 
\vith their mothers. In either case, they can be fur- 
nished with plenty of chaff in which to scratch and 
keep busy, if the days are stormy and they must be 
shut in. If little chicks have nothing to do but to 
run from the coop to the water fountain, in all 
probability they will drink too much water and 
bring on diarrhoea. If chickens are given water 
only at certain times, they are likely to be very 
thirsty and will drink too much ; or, if there is no 
water where they are accustomed to find it, chickens 
on the farm will go to some drain or "puddle" in the 
barnyard and drink impure water. All drinking 
fountains should be so constructed that the young 
chickens can not get in them and get their bodies 
wet. There are excellent fountains on the market, 
from the little ones for individual coops to the big 
ones holding several gallons. If one does not wish 
to go to the expense of buying or having them 
made, good water fountains for young chickens may 
be made by driving a hole with a nail or awl in a 
tin coffee or tomato can about one-half inch from 
the top or open end ; this can being filled with water, 
a small basin, or some such dish, is placed over the 
top of it. and the two are inverted together. The 



326 PROFfrABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

water stays in the basin as high as the hole in the 
can. It is well perhaps to add a little piece of cop- 
peras to the water occasionally, for a mild disin- 
fectant and tonic, or "Douglas mixture" in the pro- 
portion of one tablespoonful to a pint of water. The 
formula for Douglas mixture is : 
Yz lb. copperas. 

1 oz. sulphuric acid. 

2 gals, water. 

Should there be any tendency to diarrhoea that 
a change in feeding does not correct, tincture of 
nux vomica may be added to the drinking water in 
the proportion of live drops of nux vomica to one 
pint of water. All drinking vessels, as well as 
dishes for food, should be kept clean through fre- 
quent washings and scaldings. In summer the wa- 
ter should not be allowed to stand in the sun and 
become warm and stale. 

Feeding Older Chickens. — AAHien the chicks 
are four or five weeks old, whether they have 
been soft-fed or dry-fed, a mash may be given 
once a day, consisting of ground oats and corn, 
bran and shorts, mixed dry and crumbly, slightly 
salted, and containing two or three times a week 
meat scraps or blood meal or some other form 
of animal protein. When skim milk is to be had, 
let the mash always be wet up with milk. Experi- 
ments prove that when skim milk forms a part of 
the chick's ration, gains are greatly increased. It 
is apparent that the chick, like any other young, 
growing animal, must have a ration rich in pro- 
tein, the muscle-making nutrient. Enough fatten- 
ing material must be given to make the body plump 
and even, but it is protein and mineral matter that 
furnish material for bones, muscles, and feathers, 
making the cockerel prepotent and vigorous and 
preparing the young pullet for early ^^g produc- 



RAISING LITTLE CHICKS. 327 

tion. Ground bone should either be kept before 
young poultry at all times or fed frequently to fur- 
nish the mineral matter which the young chick 
requires. Lime, so necessary for the laying hen, 
should also be furnished the chick after it is nicely 
started. Ground oyster shell is the form in which 
lime is most relished by poultry. Charcoal kept 
where tlie fowls, young and old, can readily get 
it, absorbs injurious gases which may form during 
the process of digestion, cleanses the digestive tract, 
and helps to keep the fowls in good healthy condi- 
tion. The charcoal that can be purchased of the 
supply houses is superior to that obtained from the 
grates of wood stoves, and the cost of it is slight. 

Fattening the Cockerels, — The farmer would find 
it profitable to separate, when they are about a 
month old, the cockerels he does not wish to keep 
for breeding purposes, and force them for an early 
market. Experiments prove that the farmer will 
be well paid for his time and trouble, even if he 
does not get "fancy" Eastern prices. Corn should 
be fed now more largely, and ground corn made 
into a mash with bran and shorts will make quicker 
gains than dry grains. A finer, quicker finish 
will be acquired if the mash is wet up with skim 
milk, and it should be made thinner than for chick- 
ens not being fattened. If skim milk cannot be 
had, then some animal protein should be given two 
or three times a week. The chickens should be fed 
three times a day all they will eat up clean. They 
should have some green food for variety, and plenty 
of grit and fresh water. They will do better, also, if 
not confined in too close quarters. We shall not 
speak of capon.izing here, as farmers in general 
have neither time nor inclination for this. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

CARE OF GROWN FOWLS IN SUMMER. 

Parasites. — Caring for grown fowls in summer 
would be a triiling matter if it were not for the 
parasites that beset them. However, if there were 
no difificulties connected with poultry raising, it 
would be an industry all would wish to undertake, 
and the market would soon become overstocked. It 
is not an arduous task to keep hen-houses so clean 
that mites and lice and nest bugs have no wish to 
harbor there. It is simply one of the farm chores 
and should be done with as much regularity and 
care as any other chore. In the warmer climates, 
where the summers are longer and the sun is hotter, 
the rounds will have to be made a little oftener 
than in the colder climates. The most troublesome 
of these pests are the chicken mites, though the 
nest bug, "small sister" of the house bedbug as it 
is called, sometimes in warm climates makes itself 
very obnoxious in the hen-house. 

Lice. — The lice that infest the body of the hen 
during the day, as well as the night, can usually be 
kept in control by providing plenty of dust for the 
hens to roll in. During the summer a healthy hen 
on the farm will usually keep herself comparatively 
free from lice by rolling and dusting in any fine 
dirt about the premises. Fin€ dust kills the lice, be- 
cause it fills the breathing pores, excluding oxygen, 
which they, like ail other animals, must have. In 
the winter, boxes for the purpose should be put in a 
svmny place in the hen-house and filled with fine 
road dust which has been gathered during the hot, 

3X8 



CARR OF GRO\V>f FOWLS IN SUMMER. 329 

dry months of summer (July and August are best) 
and stored away for winter use. This may contain 
Persian powder or pyrethrum, or any good insect 
powder, sifted coal or wood ashes, land plaster, sul- 
phur or lime — any one of these or some of each. 
If this is not sufficient to keep the hens free from 
lice, they would better be caught as they go into 
the house in the evening and dusted thoroughly 
with insect powder ; or as they come out on a warm, 
bright morning, they may be dipped in warm kero- 
sene emulsion or some good sheep dip ; for, while 
the lice do not prey upon the hens as do the mites, 
they annoy them greatly, and best results cannot 
be obtained when they exist. 

Mites. — It is the wily little mite that does the 
most harm. He hides by day in corners, cracks and 
crevices, sauntering boldly forth at night to gorge 
himself on the life-blood of the sleeoing hens. So 
rapidly do these insidious little fellows multiply 
that, undisturbed, they soon become a might}' army 
and their ravages are fearful, but fortunately science 
has discovered weapons with which they may 
be successfully combated. A little **stick-to-it- 
iveness" is the chief requirement of the adversfary. 
In the West, salt is often used with good result. 
One poultryman describes his method thus : "On 
one Monday each month, water in which the clothes 
have been w'ashed is saved and heated. The hen- 
house is then thoroughly sprayed with this hot soap- 
suds, and salt is tlirown in handfuls on the wet sur- 
face, where it adheres, forming, a crust. Roosts and 
nest-boxes are given a similar treatment." If the 
eggs are to be used for hatching, however, salt 
should not be used about the nests, for eggshells are 
porous and the delicate germ within may be injured. 
A good practice is to use nest-boxes that can be 
easily removed. Pegs or nails may be driven in the 



330 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

walls, and boxes having holes bored in them may be 
hung on these pegs. Then once a month in summer, 
or oftener if need be, these boxes may be taken out- 
side and the nest straw burned in them. This is 
really a killing" of two birds with one stone, for it de- 
stroys the old straw and disinfects the nest-box. 
By this method, too, there is no danger of tainted 
eggs from the absorption through the porous shell 
of unpleasant odors, as when kerosene or coal-tar 
remedies are used. Kerosene is, however, a most 
excellent remedy to use about the roosts, and walls, 
and is the one most frequently employed by poul- 
trymen to rid their premises of mites. It is sure 
death to every mite and mite's egg it comes in con- 
tact with. The house may be sprayed or sprinkled 
with pure kerosene and the roosts thoroughly 
washed with it, or kerosene emulsion may be made 
and used in a similar manner. The last is, of course, 
cheaper and it is quite as effective. The recipe for 
kerosene emulsion is as follows: 

"Shave one-half pound of common hard soap into 
one gallon soft water and bring to a boil. Remove 
from fire and stir into it at once two gallons of 
kerosene oil. Churn thoroughly with force pump or 
churn dasher until it forms a creamy white mass, 
which becomes a jelly when cold. When ready to 
use for dip, spray or wash, dilute with ten gallons 
of soft water." 

Nest Bugs. — The same remedy used for mites 
ought, if applied with thoroughness, to rid the 
house of nest bugs, remembering always that no 
grease, kerosene or salt should be used around sit- 
ting hens. Shutting up the house and burning brim- 
stone occasionally is a good thing, and it is well to 
see that the houses are thoroughly whitewashed at 
least twice a year, a liberal supply of crude carbolic 



CARE OF GROWN FOWLS IN SUMMER. 33I 

acid, salt, or some other disinfectant being added to 
the whitewash. 

The feeding of hens that have the range of the 
farm in summer requires but httle thought further 
than to see that there is clover or alfalfa or a patch 
of rape — or, better, that all three of these are where 
the hens may go into them at will. A little grain 
should be given twice a day ; it may be wheat, oats, 
barley, buckwheat, millet, sorghum, or a little corn 
sometimes. A mash is good occasionally for va- 
riety, always salted, and stirred up with skim milk 
if one has it. Plenty of fresh water or milk to drink 
must be supplied. All the broken dishes and thick 
glass about the place should be pounded up for the 
hens. They like it better than any other grit. It is 
an excellent plan for the housewife to make the 
pounding up of such ware the penalty for breaking 
dishes. Let the hens have a sand pile, too, or they 
and the small boy can divide the sand pile between 
them. Throw out a bucket of wood ashes once in a 
while where they can get it. Furnish plenty of 
oyster shell and ground bone, and then if a box of 
charcoal is kept before them your fortifications are 
complete. 

During moulting season hens must have the best 
of care. It is the critical time of the year to them. 
They must be fed the most wholesome and nutri- 
tious foods, those rich in protein from which new 
feathers may be made — wheat, barley, oats, peas. 
Corn, too, may now be given. Sunflower seed is 
excellent at this time. If mashes are given, let 
them be dry and crumbly, and it will hasten the 
growth of feathers if they contain each day a little 
flaxseed meal. Beans soaked over night and then 
cooked until soft and made into a stiff mash with 
corn meal is also an excellent food for moulting 



2,2,2 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

hens. They ought to have animal protein at this 
time, too, especially if they have no skim milk. 
Nothing is better than coarsely ground green 
bone. If this cannot be provided, then some of the 
poultry foods on the market containing ground 
bone may be used, as Swift's "Ideal Poultry Food" 
or Cypher's "Beef Scrap." Drinking water at this 
time may contain "Douglas mixture," two table- 
spoonfuls to the pint. If there is an inclination 
towards diarrhoea, use carbolic acid, one teaspoonful 
to one quart of water ; or a strong tea of white oak 
bark may be made and one pint added to each quart 
of water. Tincture of nux vomica may be used as 
for little chicks — live drops to the pint. A simple 
little home remedy used by some farmers' wives to 
correct any little derangement in digestion that 
may appear in the tlock is to give twice a week in a 
panful of milk a tablespoonful of a mixture made by 
sifting or rubbing together equal parts of Epsom 
salts, cayenne pepper, sulphur and connnon baking 
soda. If condimental foods are necessary at any 
time, we can prepare our own much cheaper than 
we can buy them. However, with clean, dry 
houses, a varietv of food, plenty of grit and exer 
cise, hens should keep in perfect condition without 
need of condiments. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

CARE OF HEx\S IN WINTER. 

Houses. — While the hens are moulting and rest- 
ing, the houses should be put in shape for the 
winter. If new houses are to be built, they 
should be ready for the hens by the mid- 
dle of October, fattening and banking and 
repairing old houses ought to be done before the 
hens begin laying their winter clutch of eggs. We 
nuist not wait until some cold night comes and 
frosts the combs of our best hens, or a cold wind 
sweeps through the building and gives them catarrh 
or roup, before we make all snug and comfortable. 
When laying begins we must see to it that nothing 
occurs to stop the flow of eggs, for if it once stops, 
in all probability it will not begin again until spring, 
when eggs have become cheap. Some people think 
it is necessary to build expensive houses to get the 
hens to lay in winter. This is a mistake. Quite as 
good results have been obtained from some old 
barn or outbuilding converted into winter quarters, 
or from some inexpensive home-made structure, as 
from a costly house built for the purpose. The ob- 
ject of a house is to make the hens "comfortable." 
W'hat, then, is a hen's idea of comfort? Is it not a 
warm place to sleep at night, where there is no 
danger of draught or dampness, yet where the air 
is pure ; and a cheery place to work in during the 
day? Her ideas in this are not so different, after 
all, from those of some of her featherless neighbors. 
In constructing a house, let the farmer keep in 
mind the following principles, then build according 

333 



334 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 




CARE OF HENS IN WINTER. 



335 




33^ PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

to his taste and the size of the flock he wishes to 
keep: all houses (i) should stand on well drained 
ground, (2) should face the south or southeast, 
(3) should have roosting places protected from 
draughts, (4) should have removable perches and 
nest-boxes that may be easily cleaned, and (5) a 
scratching place of ample size. Dr. D. E. Salmon, 
for many years Chief of the Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry of the Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
ton, D. C, makes practical suggestions for houses 
in Farmers' Bulletin No. 141, "Poultry on the 
Farm." A house described in Bulletin No. 100, 
Maine Experiment Station, under the head of "Open 
Houses," would adapt itself admirably to the use of 
farmers in Northern climates. There are a few 
windows in the south, or front, but there is, in addi- 
tion, a considerable space between the windows, fit- 
ted with a frame covered with cloth and hinged at 
the top, which may be let down on very cold or 
very stormy days and nights. There is also a frame 
or curtain in front of the perches, which is let down 
every night in cold weather. This keeps the fowls 
warm and at the same time admits plenty of pure 
air. Experiments prove that hens in such houses 
may be made to lay abundantly in winter, if their 
circulation is kept up during the day by wholesome 
food and plenty of exercise in the deep litter of the 
scratching shed. That they are happier thus em- 
ployed, their cheery song on a cold winter morning 
gives ample proof. 

Feeding for Eggs. — If in the fall the farmer has 
a flock of thrifty hens, pullets mostly — none 
over two years old, except perhaps a few 
for breeding stock or mothers — how must he 
feed to make them profitable? First, he must 
find out the composition of the egg, just as 
he has found out the composition of milk that he 




337 



338 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

may know what to feed his cows. The egg, like 
milk, is composed largely of protein, and the hen to 
produce eggs must be fed protein, just as the cow is 
fed protein to produce milk. But the hen, does not 
belong to the bovine, but to the avis or bird family, 
and for best results she must have more variety in 
her ration than the cow, and much more exercise. 
Grain. — One reason that so many of the farmers 
in the West do not get eggs in winter is that their 
hens are too fat. The hen, like most other animals, 
prefers corn to any other food, and when her favor- 
ite food lies in great open piles around her she is 
going to eat her fill, especially if she is given noth- 
ing else in its place. We have a problem here that 
the corn-belt farmer will have to solve if he would 
have plenty of fresh eggs in winter ; for we know 
that when a hen becomes excessively fat, the ovules 
are paralyzed and it is a physical impossibility for 
her to "lay. The hens on many Iowa, Nebraska and 
Illinois farms — and in other states, too, no doubt — 
are often in such condition. It hardly needs to be 
said that they are of such value only as the butcher 
puts upon them, and the sooner they are in his 
possession the better. Hens should be examined 
frequently after they go to roost, and the amount 
of corn fed in winter governed by the condition 
they are in and the severity of the weather. It 
is true that certain types have a greater tendency 
to put on fat than others. It is more natural for 
the Asiatic and general-purpose fowls to become 
fat than for those of the Mediterranean class, just 
as it is more natural for Angus, Hereford and 
Shorthorn cows to convert their food into fat than 
for the Holsteins and the Jerseys. Oats, peas, 
wheat, barley, buckwheat, millet, etc., contain less 
starch and oils than corn and are excellent grains 
to keep in the litter for hens to scratch in, some- 



CARE OF HENS IN WINTER. 



339 



times one, sometimes another, and again perhaps a 
mixture — hens like little surprises. Bundles of un- 
thrashed wheat are excellent to open and throw into 
the scratching- shed for a grain ration. Oat-and-pea 
hay is also good. 

Animal Protein. — It is the animal protein and the 
succulent green food the hen gets in summer for 
herself which she misses most in winter, and with 
which she must be supplied if she is going to pro- 




PoiiUry House. Utah Experiment Station, Logan. T'tah. 



duce many eggs. There is now no freshly turned sod 
for her to scratch in for bugs and worms, no flies are 
sailing by for her to catch in mid air, no grass- 
hoppers are in the new-mown hay. Clover and al- 
falfa fields are dry and brown, or white with snow. 
She goes within doors, -reluctantly at first, perhaps, 
but she soon forgets "the pleasures of summer" if her 
few wants are carefully and regularly supplied. 
Animal protein may be easily furnished in the form 



34^ PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

of skim milk, meat scraps from the table or those 
we buy, ground bone from the butcher shop, the 
waste from butchering, an occasional liver or heart 
from the butcher's, hung up for the hens to pick at, 
or cooked and chopped. Blood meal is good, but 
that docs not contain bone and is therefore not so 
good to buy for the hens as the poultry foods on 
the market, which, like Swift's "Ideal Poultry 
Food," contain ground bone as well as dried meat 
and blood. Old horses that have outlived their 
usefulness are sometimes killed and skinned, and 
the meat buried in snow or packed in salt 
to be given the hens in winter. Preserved in 
the former way it may be fed raw or cooked ; in 
the latter it should be freshened and then slowly 
cooked. On farms where there is skim milk in 
plenty, no more economical use can be made of it 
than by using it in any mashes that may be made 
for the hens, and by giving it to them to drink. In 
winter it should be warmed. 

Green Food. — In the fall when the farmer is 
filling his cellar with good things for winter use, let 
him not forget the staunch little friends in the hen- 
house. They dearly love cabbage. Let them have 
all the loose^ unfilled heads and, if there are not 
enough of those, some of the sound ones. They 
ought to have, cabbage twice a week and onions oc- 
casionally, but neither cabbage nor onions often 
enough to "flavor" the eggs. Beets of all kinds — 
sugar beets, garden beets, mangel-wurzels — are ex- 
cellent for hens. Give them all the vegetable trim- 
mings from the kitchen. There is little in this line 
they cannot be trained to eat. If apples are plenti- 
ful and cheap, cut up apples for them sometimes, 
as well as save for them all parings. They will rel- 
ish potato skins in winter for variety better raw 
than cooked, and will take some potatoes whole, 



CARE OF HENS IN WINTER. 



341 



too, if there are plenty. If you have silos, be sure 
to carry to the hen-house two or three times a 
week heaping pans of corn silage, and watch the 
hens devour it. But the foods "par excellence" 
for hens in winter are clover and alfalfa. Alfalfa 
contains a higher percentage of protein than clover, 
but both are rich in this egg-producing element. A 
good plan is to scrape up the leaves and litter from 
the floor of the barns, and either feed it dry or steam 
it and feed it in a mash with ground oats and corn, 
bran and shorts. Cut clover or alfalfa may also be 
fed in this way. Little racks may be made in the 
hen-houses, in which alfalfa or clover hay may be 
fed the same as to other stock. Clover and alfalfa 
may be given in the form of meal, if one cares to go 




Double House with Scratching Shed. 

to the trouble and expense of buying meal or having 
it ground. It is really not an expensive food when 
we consider how far a little alfalfa or clover meal 
goes, but it hardly seems necessary for the farmer 
to do this ; when he has it so abundantly, there is 
no harm done if a_ f ew stems are wasted. 

In regard to the manner of feeding, poultry men 
do not agree. Some think it best to feed mash 
once a day, others think they get sufficiently good re- 
sults with feeding it three or four times a week. 
Some claim it is best in winter to feed this mash the 
first thing in the morning, not giving so much but that 
the hens will scratch in the litter for grain ; others 
feed the hot mash late in the afternoon. Excellent 



342 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

results may be obtained from feeding thus: grain in 
the Htter in the morning, a mash at noon three times 
a week containing animal protein, on otjier days 
corn silage, or raw potatoes, apples, sliced beets, cab- 
bages, or some such food — with clean clover or 
alfalfa within reach at all times ; and, for a last feed 
at night, ear-corn broken in pieces an inch or two 
long. This seems a practical plan for the farmer, as 
there is seldom an extra hand who can take time to 
stir mashes early in the morning or late in the after- 
noon. All mashes for chickens should be salted. 
While salt in excess is a rank poison to them, they 
need a little of this mineral. It is signifi- 
cant that nearly all condimental poultry foods 
contain common salt. There is no harm in 
adding a pinch of black or red pepper or 
ginger occasionally to supply the lack of certain ele- 
ments they get from seeds and weeds in summer. See 
to it that the supply of grit, sand, oyster shell and 
charcoal is never omitted, and if the very best results 
are to be obtained ground bone should be within reach 
at all times. Self- feeding hoppers with compartments 
for the different ingredients may be bought of the 
supply houses or made at home, keeping the foods 
clean and preventing waste. 

Water for Hens in Winter. — But with all the 
precautions we may take and the care we may ex- 
pend on our hens, they will not lay in winter if they 
are stinted in their supply of thai cheapest of all ma- 
terials — water. The farmer who relies on his hens go- 
ing out to get water from the tank where, the horses 
drink, or to the trough where the pigs feed, will be 
sadly disappointed if he expects to get eggs in winter. 
Sixty-six per cent of the egg is water, and the hen, 
besides needing water to make the egg, needs it to 
keep her own body in good condition. The best rule 
undoubtedly is to fill all water fountains with warm 



CARE OF HENS IX WINTER. 



343 



water the first thing in the morning — and when they 
are empty to fill again. When the last rounds are 
made at night any water remaining in the dishes 
should be thrown out. The most satisfactory ves- 
sels for watering grown fowls are the wall foun- 
tains which can now be obtained at the poultry 
supply houses. When one thinks of the time and 
steps saved in having such a convenience the ques- 




Interlor of inexpensive house, showing dust-bath, hoppers for 
oyster shell, grit, etc. Courtesy Mr. Clarence Ward, Chicago. 

tion of expense is nothing. These fountains in the 
large size hold two gallons, and are so constructed 
that the wattles of high-combed birds cannot get 
in the water, thus lessening the risk of' freezing 
these pendulous ornaments. The water does not 
get dirty, and if the fountain is hung back in the 
house out of the wind, it does not freeze. In win- 
ter, as in moulting season, a little tonic may be 
given sometimes in the drinking water. 
Little Danger from Disease. — Tf there is no 



344 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

draught on the fowls at night, and they are kept busy 
during the day in a well-ventilated scratching pen, 
there will be no catarrh or roup. If they have a good 
dust bath in a sunny spot, with plent of clean grit 
and pure water, there will be few, if any, cases of in- 
digestion. If there should be cases of such from 
greediness on the part of the hen or overfeeding on 
the part of the attendant, a dose of castor oil, sweet 
oil or Epsom salts given at once with patient shut 
away from food for from twenty-four to thirty-six 
hours, and then fed lightly on nutritious food, will 
often effect a speedy and permanent cure. Some- 
times, simply shutting away from food for a period 
will produce a cure. However, if a case of indiges- 
tion is not attended to as soon as observed, the 
hatchet is, as a rule, the only practical remedy to be 
applied, as hens have little power of resistance when 
a disease is once seated. 

America Deficient in System. — Notwithstanding 
the fact that the product of the hen in the United 
States for 1900 was estimated at $290,000,000, we 
are as yet but in the a-b-c stage of the poultry indus- 
try. The possibilities before us in this fortunate land 
are almost limitless. Nor must those of us interested 
in the growth of this industry rest until we 
have secured for our country such a system as ob- 
tains in some foreign countries today, most notably 
Denmark. It is a hopeful sign that in the best grocer- 
ies of our inland cities, as well as in those of the 
Eastern and Western seaboards, eggs are now to be 
found stamped with the name of the producer and the 
date on which they were laid. May the time be not 
far distant in this great America, when eggs shall 
be bought and sold by weight and the man who 
puts upon the market an egg of inferior quality 
shall render himself liable to a fine, thus removing 
the temptation to sell untlersized, underflavored or 



CARE OF HENS IN WINTER. 



345 



ill-flavored eggs. When this is true, our brethren of 
the cities will cheerfuly pay choice prices for eggs, 
because they are getting an article "of guaranteed 
weight, freshness, and flavor," and we, whose part it 
is to furnish such eggs, shall find in this appreciation 
of our efiforts' an incentive to put upon the market 
the best that can be produced. 




Interior anangement in Poultry House and students feeding fowls, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

TURKEYS AND GUINEAS. 

Turkey raising, in former years a source of pleas- 
ure and profit to many farmers, has recently become 
unpopular. Some of our most experienced turkey 
raisers, becoming discouraged through numerous 
losses, have given up the growing of turkeys — for 
the present at least. It is well that tlie alarm be 
sounded ; for, unless something is done to restore to 
this bird sufificient vigor of constitution to enable it 
to withstand the attacks of the dread disease which 
is depleting our fiocks in the West and Middle 
West — as well as in New England and the East — 
the plump form of the turkey in a few years will 
cease to grace our Thanksgiving table. If we would 
save to America the beautiful bird which has been 
a part of her history since the days of the earliest 
settlers, we must discover wherein our error lies, 
and remedy it, if remedy is within our power. 

Cause of Diminished Vitality. — Is it that we have 
failed to understand the nature of this shy bird 
of the forest and have attempted domestication 
where domestication is impossible, or have we, in 
disregarding the laws of selection and breeding, 
laid the foundation of this deadly germ disease, 
hepatitis, or "blackhead," as it is more commonly 
called ? The fact that turkeys kept upon large 
tracts of land where the conditions are as nearly 
as possible like the conditions of the free and in- 
dependent wild turkey, from which the so-called 
"domestic turkey" originally sprung, have failed to 
contract the disease, even when inoculated with 

346 



TURKEYS AND GUINEAS. 347 

the germs, goes to prove that domestication has 
had something to do with undermining the con- 
stitution of the turkey. Then, too, we have known 
for years that inbreeding could not with safety be 
])racticed with turkeys, and yet neighbors in a com- 
munity would find, if the lineage of the turkeys in 
their flock could be traced, that sometimes all the 
turkeys of the neighborhood are more or less re- 
lated. To exchange "gobblers," or to buy one a 
few miles distant, or even to go without one, rely- 
ing upon the service of a neighbor's tom, has often 
l)een deemed a quite sufficient introduction of "new 
blood." More than this, turkey raisers have too 
often been indifferent to the importance of select- 
ing for breeders mature birds — the proudest and 
handsomest of the flock, as well as the most vigor- 
ous and healthy. Too often the undersized, the 
late hatched pullets or toms — such as could not be 
sold for profit at market time — have been left over 
to be used next year for breeding purposes. It may 
be, too, that the fanciers have erred in the opposite 
direction, and in breeding for size and beauty have 
sometimes lost sight of the fact that stamina is a 
far more important quality. 

A Serious Problem. — Whether any one of these 
mistakes, or all of them, or some error not yet dis- 
covered, has been the means of the turkey's un- 
doing, one fact remains clear and undisputed, and 
that is that turkey raisers are confronted with a 
most serious problem. It is only by the co-operation 
of experiment stations and government officials with 
turkey raisers and farmers, together with the 
passage of laws of strict governmental inspection, 
that we may hope to gain the upper hand of a dis- 
ease which, while it may not be a menace to the 
health of our people, because it is said not to be 
communicable to human beings, yet threatens dire 



348 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



disaster to this important branch of the poultry in- 
dustry. 

Investigations in Rhode Island. — Because we are 
still young in the West and our experiment stations 
are not, for the most part, equipped with facilities 
for experimentation in this line of work, it may be 
well to call the attention of Western farmers to 
the work done in the East, especially at the Rhode 
Island Experiment Station, where investigations 
with this disease, have been carried forward now 




Cseciim, or "blind gut," of 

turkey affected witti 

hepatitis. 



Liver of turkey affected with 
hepatitis. Spots indi- 
cate dead tissue. 



for more than ten years. That farmers may recog- 
nize the disease when it appears in their flocks, 
illustrations from photographs made by the Rhode 
Island Station, showing the diseased appearance 
of the organs primarily concerned in the malady, 
are given herewith, and the following description 
is quoted from the official report of that Station 
made in 1894: 

"The disease apparently first attacks the caecum, 
or pronged part of the lower bowel, which event- 



TURKEYS AND GUINEAS. 349 

ually becomes thickened and enlarged, and often 
badly ulcerated. The liver is next affected, be- 
comes spotted and in advanced stages is covered 
with circular yellowish areas, showing destruction 
of tissue within the organ. The disease attacks 
young turkeys at all ages and gradually develops. 
More turkeys succumb to it in the latter part of 
July and early part of August, and at the approach 
of cold weather in the fall, than at any other time. 
Diseased birds seem to be able to hold out against 
it during the warm, dry weather, but are quickly 
overcome in wet, stormy weather. Affected birds 
usually have a diarrhoeal discharge, their feathers 
become rough, and the head looks pinched and 
turns dark or purple." 

Regarding these symptoms, however, there are 
instances of birds, which when examined after death 
did not possess a vital organ that was not either al- 
most wasted away or else "one mass of corruption," 
whose feathers to the last were as smooth and 
glossy as those of an exhibition bird, and the head 
presented no unnatural appearance. In fact, so in- 
sidious is the disease in its progress, especially in 
older birds, that oftentimes those unacquainted with 
it would not notice anything wrong until the very 
last stages were reached. To the careful observer, 
however, two symptoms are apparent sooner or 
later — these are loss of appetite and diarrhoeal dis- 
charge. 

Precautions Necessary. — Most urgent is the need 
to warn all turkey raisers against allowing a bird 
to remain in the flock an instant after a suspicion 
is aroused that it is ailing. Let all such be strictly 
quarantined or killed immediately. Let post mor- 
tem examinations be made in every instance, and 
the bodies of infected birds deeply buried or burned. 
The remainder of the flock should be removed at 



350 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

once to uninfected ground, and the old run left 
unoccupied by turkeys for at least two years. In 
case this cannot be done, the wisest plan will un- 
doubtedly be to dispose of the stock as soon as pos- 
sible, and a few years later — when the wind and the 
rain, the frost, the sunshine, and the plow have ren- 
dered the soil pure once more — to begin again with 
new stock, new ideas, new enthusiasm — to achieve, 
it is to be hoped, complete success. 

Profit in Turkeys. — Those who are in localities 
where "blackhead" is not known will, beyond ques- 
tion, find immense profit in turkeys. There is no 
animal upon the farm which returns such profits 
as the turkey when sold at ordinary prices, and we 
may now look for prices quite beyond the ordmary. 
If allowed to roam during the day, as is most con- 
sistent with their nature, besides gaining most of 
their livelihood themselves they will destroy mul- 
titudes of injurious insects. Large flocks of tur- 
keys have been kept by ranchmen and farmers in 
the West for this purpose alone. This is indeed 
the ideal way of raising turkeys. We do not repose 
the confidence in the turkey mother that she de- 
serves. She can, as a usual thing, raise her turkeys 
far better herself than we can do it for her. It is 
doubtless wise in localities where there are wild 
animals, like polecats and coyotes, to teach the old 
turkeys to bring the young ones home at night to 
roost near the house or barn, that they may be un- 
der the eye of the good dog, which should be the 
faithful night-watch on every farm where poultry 
is kept. By driving turkeys to a certain place at a 
particular time on several successive days, they can 
easily be taught to come to this place at this time 
every day for food. By this plan the owner can keep 
some account of his flocks, and they are not likely 
to wander so far away from home. 



TURKEYS AND GUINEAS. 35 1 

Feeding.— While much has been said in former 
years about proper and improper systems of feed- 
ing, we cannot under existing circumstances rec- 
ommend any particular method of feeding turkeys, 
as we now know that the character of the food given 
has not been the chief cause of mortality among 
them, as has so long been maintained. Perhaps 
ihe old man was nearest right, after all, who, when 
asked to explain the reason of his success with tur- 
keys, said he reckoned it was because all the time 
he spent with them was when he clubbed them 
away from home. It is, at any rate, far better to 
feed voung turkeys too little than too much. On 
pleasant days twice a day — morning and late after- 
noon — is doubtless often enough to feed poults 
ranging with their mothers. On stormy days they 
may be fed again at noon if they can be found con- 
veniently. After they are four or five weeks old, if 
insects are plentiful and there are clover, alfalfa, 
or grain fields in which to roam, the morning feed 
may be omitted. As market time approaches, the 
feeding periods may be increased again to two or 
even three times a day. 

Character of Food. — ^^'h^^t has been said on the 
subject of foods for chicks will apply to poults. 
.\ variety of wholesome food and grains is far 
better than any one food, however good it may 
be in itself, though turkeys having range will over- 
come a deficiency of this sort by procuring variety 
for themselves. Little turkeys are fond of bread 
crumbs, bread moistened with milk, hard boiled 
eggs, or cottage cheese, of rolled or pin-head oats, 
cracked wheat and corn. Millet seed, an ex- 
cellent food for chicks, is said not to agree with 
poults. Turkeys are not usually so fond of corn 
as of oats and wheat. The latter grains are better 
for growing turkeys, but at market time corn puts 



352 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



on the "gilt edge," and it is well to gradually in- 
crease the proportion of corn until during the last 
few weeks of their career it forms a large part of 
the ration. 

Grit, etc. — If for any reason it is thought best 
to confine little turkeys until they are "strong on 
their legs," care must be taken to supply plenty 




Pair of Mammoth Bronze Turkeys. 

of fresh water and grit, either good sharp sand or 
the commercial grit. Turkeys, old and young, are 
extremely fond of oyster shells, and it must be that 
they flo not get enough lime on range, in some lo- 
calities, or they would not crave it. "It is well to 
keep a dish of this, as well as one of charcoal, at 



TURKEYS AND GUINEAS. 353 

the feeding place, and water must be provided if 
there are no springs or brooks in the fields where 
they are accustomed to go. 

Standard Varieties. — As to variety, the Mammoth 
Bronze is probably the favorite, though the other 
varieties — the Narragansett, Buff, Slate, White, 
and Black — each has its admirers and supporters. 
That any one of these is less subject to disease 
than the others is not thus far known. The 
Bronze contains more wild blood than the 
others and is more shy in its habits. All are beau- 
tiful birds, worthy of the post of honor on the table 
at the annual feast a nation celebrates to express 
its gratitude for past favors and continued oppor- 
tunity, and we must not, if human intelligence can 
save them, allow them to pass from our midst. 

Guineas. — Few meats are more delicious and 
dainty, even when prairie chicken and quail hgure 
in the comparison, than the flesh of the young 
guinea. As turkeys become high priced and the 
flavor of these gamy birds is better known and ap- 
preciated, there will be a growing demand for them 
and a consequently higher price. They are less dif- 
ficult to raise than turke3's, if their habits are un- 
derstood and the wild instincts they still retain are in 
a measure respected. Some, it is true, object to 
their "noise"; but to others the cock's shrill note 
of alarm, or the hen's cheerful "buckwheat, buck- 
wheat," is pleasing rather than otherwise. 

Hatching. — Guineas are prolific layers in spring 
and summer, and, while the very first eggs are apt 
to be infertile, there will be several sittings of fer- 
tile eggs before Mistress Guinea herself thinks of 
becoming broody. These may be hatched and raised 
by fowls. Hens usually make good mothers for 
little guineas, and the affection these little things 
show their adopted mothers would be pathetic if 



354 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

the hens did not respond, which, be it said to the 
hens" credit, they nearly always do. Guineas, when 
hatched by hens, must be in nests deep enough and 
light enough to prevent their getting out and being 
lost. For several days after they are taken off the 
nest they must be confined in a coop with a tight 
yard. Until they learn to have confidence in their 
mother and in the human being who takes care of 
them, they are the shyest little creatures in the 
world, and if frightened will run away and 
perish. After a few days they may be allowed 
to go out with their foster-mother, if she is a good, 
quiet, careful hen, and soon they will be almost no 
trouble at all. It is better, when it can be done, to 
put guineas in a different yard from the chickens 
and let them range in a different direction. Some- 
times the old guineas annoy hens having little guin- 
eas. A good-sized stick will soon bring them to an 
understanding of the situation. 

Food. — Dry food is better for little guineas than 
moist food, though they like bread crumbs and hard 
boiled eggs sometimes for variety. Mashes for 
young guineas will very soon bring on appendicitis. 
Feeds similar to Cypher's "Chick Food," or a col- 
lection of cracked grains and small seeds, such as 
were recommended for chicks, are the best foods for 
these birds. We must be careful not to overfeed, 
for these are active little creatures, and soon are 
quite able to fill their little craws with insects. Like 
turkeys, they earn the most of their living, but un- 
like turkeys, inbreeding and domestication have not 
apparently detracted from a naturally vigorous con- 
stitution. Guineas, thus brought up, upon becom- 
ing parents themselves, are usually so tame that 
they will bring their young to the yard once or twice 
a day to be fed, and very grateful the little 
things seem for a bit of food. However, when 



TURKEYS AND GUINEAS. 355 

the parents are wild and show a decided preference 
to be let alone, it is quite as well to let them have 
their way. When cold weather sets in, they will 
bring their flocks to the barn-yard, but these will 
never become so iriendly as guineas hatched by 
fowls or by guineas which are themselves compara- 
tivelv tame. 



356 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 




PART VII 

HORSES 

CHAPTER XXXV. 

TYPES OF HORSES.— SUMMER FEEDING 
FOR WORK. 

While cattle hav^e been used in the past as beasts 
of burden, the horse is now ahnost entirely relied 
upon for the production of all kinds of work, be it 
draAving- a loaded wagon, an implement of tillage, a 
road vehicle, or carrying a load upon the back. For 
the most economical performance of these differ- 
ent kinds of work, horses have been bred and devel- 
oped along- rather distinct and well defined lines. Just 
as the freight traffic upon our railroads calls for an 
engine built for heavy hauls and the passenger service 
calls for one built for high speed — neither engine be- 
ing adapted for the work of the other — so the draft 
horse has been developed for strength and the roadster 
for speed, each being well adapted for its particular 
service only. Horses, then, are classified in a gen- 
eral way as drafters and roadsters ; there are many 
gradations between, which for convenience are 
grouped into one intermediate type, called the coach, 
or general-purpose, horse. 

The draft horse, which includes such well-known 
breeds as the Percheron, English Shire, Clydesdale 
and Belgian, is built massively to procure weight 
and muscular strength. Without weight a horse is 
unable to cling to the sfround under the strain of a 



358 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

heavy pull, when there is always a tendency for the 
feet to slip back. The driver who transferred from 
his overloaded wagon one sack of wheat to each 
horse's back recognized this and profited by 
it. A horse could hardly be classed as a drafter 
V/ithout possessing a weight of at least 1,500 
pounds. Stallions of the draft breeds frequently 
weigh as high as 2,200 pounds. In conformation 
the draft horse, briefly described, should be broad 
and deep in chest to give strong lung power; broad 
and well muscled over back, loin and hips ; rather 
short and closely coupled in body to give strength ; 
and short rather than long in the legs to give greater 
purchase on the load. 

The following score card for draft horses, by 
Craig in "Judging Live Stock," gives the desirable 
type in detail : 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES- 
GELDING. 

Perfect 
Score. 
General appearance: 

Weight, over 1500 pounds. Score according to age.... 4 

Form, broad, massive, low set, proportioned 4 

Quality, bone clean, yet indicating sufficient substance; 

tendons distinct ; skin and hair fine 4 

Temperament^ energetic, good disposition 4 

Head and neck: 

Head, lean, medium size 1 

Muzzle, fine, nostrils large, lips thin, even 1 

Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 1 

Forehead, broad, full 1 

Ears, medium size, well carried 1 

Neck, muscled; crest high; throatlatch fine, windpipe 

large 1 

Forequarters : 

Shoulders, sloping, smooth, snug, extending into back. ... 2 

Arm. short, thrown forward 1 

Forearm, heavily muscled, long, wide 2 



TYPES OF HORSES. 359 

Knees, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly sup- 
ported 2 

Cannons, short, lean, wide; tendons large, set back 2 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 1 

Pasterns, sloping, lengthy, strong 3 

Feet, large, even size, straight; horn dense; dark color; 
sole concave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel 
wide, high, one-half length of toe 8 

Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point 
of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the 
knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a per- 
pendicular line dropping from the center of the elbow 
joint should fall upon the center of the knee and 

pastern joints and oack of hoof 4 

Body: 

Chest, deep, wide, large girth 2 

Eibs, long, close, sprung 2 

Back, straight, short, broad 2 

Loin, wide, short, thick, straight 2 

Underline, flank low 1 

Hindquarters: 

Hips, smooth, wide 2 

Croup, long, wide, muscular 2 

Tail, attached high, well carried 1 

Thighs, muscular 2 

Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 2 

Gaskins, or Lower Thighs, wide, muscled 2 

Hocks, clean cut, wide, straight 8 

Cannons, short, wide; tendons large, set back 2 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 1 

Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy 2 

Feet, large, even size ; straight ; horn dense, dark color ; 
sole concave ; bars strong ; frog large, elastic ; heel wide, 

high, one-half length of toe <) 

Legs. Viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from 
the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of 
the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a 
perpendicular line from the hip joint should fall upon 
the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the mi<l- 
dle; and a perpendicular line from the point of the but- 
tock should run parallel with the line of the cannon . . 4 
Action : 

Walk, smooth, quick, long, balanced 6 

Trot, rapid, straight, regular 4 

Total 100 



360 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

The roadster type, including such horses as the 
American trotter, English Thoroughbred, Hackney, 
and Kentucky saddle horse, is light in weight, not 
to exceed 1,200 pounds, narrow and slender, yet rather 
long in both body and legs to give freedom of move- 
ment. The roadster has refinement rather than coarse- 
ness in bone, and a highly organized nervous sys- 
tem to give quickness of action. 

The coach type, or general-purpose horse, in- 
cluding the French and German Coach, Cleve- 




Types of Horses — Pereheron (draft) on the left. German Coach in 
the middle and Kentucky Saddle Horse (roadster) on the right. 

land Bay, and a large numb.er of mixed-bred 
horses, is intermediate in conformation as well 
as size. Such a horse is built for moderate 
speed, combined with moderate strength. For 
the farmer who has need of but one team, 
this type is most suitable, because of its adapta- 
bility to all kinds of farm work. For walking 
on soft ground, the general-purpose horse with its 
lighter weight and longer legs is much more ser- 



TYPES OF HORSES. 361 

viceable than the large, compact draft horse, fitted 
especially for heavy work in cities. On large farms 
a limited number of special-purpose draft horses 
may be used to advantage. A man can drive a large 
team as easily as a smaller one, which makes it pos- 
sible to do more work for the number of men 
employed, at least when the character of the work 




Clydesdales Readj' for Work. 

is such as to require a predominance of strength rather 
than action. 

The mule is popular in the South because it seems 
to stand hot summer weather better than the horse. 
Many Northerners also favor mules for farm work, 
claiming that they require less feed per unit of work, 
are less subject to disease, and require less shoeing 
than horses. 

The Source of Energy. — Plants during growth 
absorb heat from the sun, which heat is held in latent 
form in the compounds elaborated. When these com- 
pounds are taken into the animal body and broken 



362 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

apart by clig"estion, some of this stored heat may be 
transformed into energy. It is the horse that is de- 
pended upon to extract this stored up energy, making 
it serviceable to man. The work horse, therefore, 
may be Hkened to a steam engine in which 
such foods as grain and hay serve as fuel, 
though it differs from the engine in that steam 
is not used as the medium between heat and 
energy. In the horse the food is converted 
into energy in a way not well understood, and 
this energy manifests itself through the agency of 
muscular contraction and expansion. It was formerly 
held that the principal source of energy is the protein 
of food, since protein goes to produce lean tissue, and 
lean tissue, or muscle,' is instrumental in producing 
work. This theory has recently been found incor- 
rect. It has been disproved by the discovery that, 
with severe muscular exertion, there is not a corre- 
spondingly large excretion of .nitrogen through the 
kidneys — coming from the disintegration of muscu- 
lar tissue or protein food — but, rather, that there is a 
large expiration of carbon dioxide gas, making it ap- 
parent that energy comes largely from a breaking 
down of non-nitrogenous matter, such as starches, 
fats, etc. It has been further shown that energy may 
be derived largely from non-nitrogenous material by 
the fact that heavy work can be done on rations in 
which starches and fats very largely predominate. 
Referring again to the steam engine, it may be said 
that muscular fiber in the animal corresponds to the 
piston-rod and drivewheel of the engine. The muscle 
is built out of protein in the food, but it is driven and 
performs the work through the action of non-nitrog- 
enous compounds, that is, when only enough protein 
is supplied in the ration to meet the actual needs of 
the animal in repairing worn-out muscles and in 
maintaining other normal functional activities of the 
body. Otherwise, when protein is fed in excess of 



TYPES OF HORSES. 363 

actual requirements, it may produce work. 

^rotein Requirements Less Than Formerly Sup- 
posed. — The Wolff-Lehmann standards stipulate 
that a 1,000-pound horse at medium work requires 24 
pounds of dry matter per day, of which there must 
be 2 pounds of digestible protein. For horses at 
heavy work these standards call for 26 pounds of dry 
matter, of which 2.5 pounds must be digestible pro- 
tein. In this ration for heavy work, the proportion 
of protein to non-nitrogenous matter (nutritive ratio) 
is I :6. In "A Digest of Recent Experiments on 
Horse Feeding," compiled by C. F. Langworthy of 
the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, 
there is published the results of an investigation to 
determine the character of rations commonly fed 
work horses in the United States. In the words of 
the author, "letters were addressed to express com- 
panies, cab companies, fire companies, and other or- 
ganizations in different cities of the United States, 
using large numbers of horses, requesting information 
regarding the rations fed." Information was also se- 
cured regarding the average weight of the horses. 
Similar values regarding horses fed by a number of 
cab companies, etc., in foreign countries were com- 
piled from available published data. The rations fed 
army horses in the United States and other coun- 
tries were also learned by correspondence and by 
compilation from various sources, and were included 
for purposes of comparison, as were also data regard- 
ing the rations fed in a large number of experiments 
carried on at the experiment stations in this coun- 
try, only those tests being selected in which the 
horses maintained their weight. The average for 
horses at moderate work, per 1,000 pounds live 
weight, was found to be 1.49 pounds of digestible 
protein per day, an amount considerably below the 
Wolff-Lehmann standards, but a little larger than 



364 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

that given by Lavalard, the French investigator. 
For horses at severe work, Langworthy gives us 
an average of 1.12 pounds of protein per day; and 
Lavalard, 1.30 pounds per day. The American av- 
erage for horses at heavy work, as compiled by 
Langworthy, is made from a more limited number 
of figures, which probably accounts for its being 
smaller than the French investigator's average and 
smaller than that of the American ration for horses 
at medium w^ork. Further investigations concerning 
requirements for work horses must be made before 
anything of a positive nature concerning require- 
ments can be given, but from the results of recent 
investigations and from a general knowledge of the 
effectiveness of some of our common American ra- 
tions fed to farm horses, it seems safe to conclude 
that much less protein than is called for by the old 
standards is actually needed. It seems entirely con- 
servative to say that, instead of 2.5 pounds of pro- 
tein being needed by a 1,000-pound horse at heavy 
work, 2 pounds will answer every purpose, giving a 
nutritive ration of 1:8, instead of 1:6. Certainly it 
is more economical to provide the minimum of pro- 
tein, because energy can be had at less expense from 
the carbohydrates and fats than from the protein 
compounds. 

Feeding Work Horses in Summer. — During 
spring and early summer, when the farm horse is 
pressed into hard and almost continuous service for 
a long period, it is important that a ration of the 
greatest efficiency should be provided ; that is, one 
which keeps the horses in good health, active and 
willing in the harness, doing full work ^\ithout losing 
weight. In providing a ration, due consideration 
should also be given to cost. Roughage is cheaper 
than grain, but"a horse at hard work is unable to dis- 
pose of a large proportion of bulky feed. If consid- 



TYPES OF HORSES. 365 

erable time and energy must be expended in masticat- 
ing rough feed, the usefuhiess of the horse for work 
is lessened thereby. The proportion of grain to rough- 
ness depends upon the severity and rapidity of the 
work performed. Horses are not so well adapted for 
the consumption of a large quantity of roughness 
as are cattle and sheep. The horse has but one stom- 
ach and this is rather limited in capacity, though the 
smallness of the stomach is partially compensated for 
by the size of the intestine, which is more capacious in 
the horse than in any other farm animal. A horse at 
hard work should not be expected to consume more 
roughness than grain by weight. 

Summer Rations. — The ration in most common 
use in the United States for work horses during the 
summer months is timothy hay and a grain ration con- 
sisting entirely of oats, or with this grain predomi- 
nating. Timothy hay is generally in favor as a 
roughage for horses, because, first, it is unusually 
free from dust ; secondly, it is relished by horses ; and, 
thirdly, it can be grown successfully in nearly all lo- 
calities.- Oats are in favor for the grain part of the 
ration because they seem to agree well with horses, 
giving them spirit for the performance of their work. 
While this grain is not considered a rich protein 
food, it seems to contain enough protein to meet re- 
quirements, even when fed in connection with a rough- 
age so deficient in protein as timothy hav. This combi- 
nation gives hardness to the muscle and does not seem 
to generate heat in sufficient quantity to cause undue 
sweating. A 1,000-pound horse at severe work, given 
14 pounds of oats and 10 pounds of timothy hay per 
day, would receive in digestible nutrients 1.2 pounds 
of protein, .53 pound fat, 8.43 pounds carbohydrates 
— a nutritive ration of 1:8. This gives protein 
much below Wolff-Lehmann requirements, with a 
correspondingly wider nutritive ratio, but it is a ra- 



366 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

tion which has been thoroughly tested in America 
and apparently furnishes all the protein needed. A 
liorse weighing 1,200 pounds, at severe work would 
need 16 pounds of oats and 12 pounds of hay per 
da}^ With more moderate work the oats should be 
diminished somewhat and the hay increased. "With 
lighter (but not more active) work, more hay can 
be consumed, because more energy will be available 
for the mastication and digestion of bulky feed. 
From the results of practical experience it would 
seem that a grain ration consisting of two-thirds 
oats and one-third corn is even more satisfactory 
than oats alone. With such a mixture somewhat 
less grain is required, and at the usual prices for 
corn this mixture is more economical than oats. 
As a matter of fact, bran should always be fed with 
oats and timothy hay to regulate the bowels and 
tone the digestive system generally. 

Feeding Without Oats, — It has formerly been 
supposed that no other grains could be successfully 
substituted for oats. Recent tests at some of our ex- 
periment stations would indicate that combinations of 
other foods which supply the nutrients, and at the 
same time possess sufficient bulk, give quite as satis- 
factory results as oats. At the New Hampshire Sta- 
tion equal parts of bran and corn proved to be as 
good as corn and oats, although the writet of the 
bulletin states that a considerable quantity of bran 
makes animals sweat more freely. It is further stated 
that 2 pounds each of bran and oil meal with corn 
would be more satisfactory than equal parts of bran 
and corn. At the North Dakota Experiment Station 
it was found that equal parts of bran and shorts main- 
tained the weight of work horses as well as oats. 
But bran and shorts are often high in price, and this 
combination might be no more economical than 
oats. 



TYPES OF HORSES. 367 

Nine pounds of corn mixed with 2 pounds of old 
process oil meal furnish in digestible nutrients 1.29 
pounds protein, 66.4 pounds carbohydrates and .52 
pound of fat. Fourteen pounds of oats furnish in 
digestible nutrients 1.28 pounds of protein, 66.2 pounds 
carbohydrates and .58 pound fat. It will be seen 
that the 11 pounds mixture of corn and oil meal fur- 
nishes almost identically the same digestible nutrients 
as the 14 pounds of oats. With corn worth 70c per 
hundred (39c per bushel), oats 90c per hundred (28c 
per bushel and oil meal $30 per ton, the 11 pounds 
of corn and oil meal will cost $0,093, while the 14 
pounds of oats will cost $0,126. Why the corn mix- 
ture should not be just as good as the oats it would 
be difficult to tell. It is probable that the presence of 
the oat hulls, making the oat ration lighter on the 
stomach, would lessen any tendency toward indiges- 
tion. A little cut hay, however, mixed with corn 
and oil meal might do something toward correcting 
that fault, or the substitution of 2 pounds of bran 
for I pound of oil meal. Nevertheless, while corn is 
used extensively in the South for work mules, it is 
not looked upon with favor for heavy draft horses 
in summer, because it makes them "logy," free to 
perspire and often causes skin diseases. Oats have 
always been in favor, partly because they are handy 
to feed, and partly because they are sufficiently 
bulky to make reckless feeding less dangerous. But 
with oats high in price, as they often are, the farmer 
who keeps several work horses might do well to 
study other mixtures of equal efficiency and lower 
cost. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

WINTER RATIONS FOR WORK HORSES. 

More Carbonaceous Food Needed in Winter. — 

Most farmers have less work for horses in winter than 
in summer. It is an excellent plan, and much more 
economical, to rough through some of the older horses 
which are not needed for winter work. Those reserved 
for work in winter should have good care and should 
be fed according to the work performed. During 
cold weather, when more feed goes to furnish heat for 
the body, it stands to reason that a horse needs a 
larger proportion of heat-making food. Equal parts 
of corn and oats by weight would be more satisfactory 
and ordinarily cheaper than a larger proportion of oats. 
Barley is sometimes fed as a substitute for corn 
where the latter is less grown. Half oats and half bar- 
ley during summer, and three parts of barley to one 
of oats by weight during cold weather, might be used, 
though horses relish barley less than corn or oats, and 
it is apt to produce digestive disorders unless boiled. 
At the North Dakota Experiment Station barley was 
fed in comparison with oats to both horses and mules. 
The roughage consisted of timothy hay. The experi- 
menter says : "This trial indicates that horses when 
taxed to the limit by hard work, cannot be supported 
upon barley quite so well as upon oats and that it is 
worth slightly less per pound than oats with stock 
which is given a medium amount of work. It in- 
dicates, further, that mules take less kindly to barley 
than do horses, and that horses which are inclined to 
be 'dainty' eaters, will not eat barley so readily as 
oats." 

- j68 



WINTER RATIONS FOR WORK HORSES. 369 

Kafir corn has been tested at the Oklahoma Ex- 
periment Station, where it was found entirely sat- 
isfactory for work horses, being both palatable and 
nutritious, but somewhat below corn in feeding 
value. It is a common practice, in sections where 
Kafir corn is grown, to feed the unthrashed heads, 
although it is thought better results can be secured 
by grinding the seeds, owing to their hard, flinty 
character. 

Molasses for Horses. — With the growth of the 
sugar industry in America much interest is being 
manifested in the feeding value of molasses, which 
product is obtained in the manufacture of sugar 
from the beet and sugar from cane. In the vi- 
cinity of sugar factories, molasses can be purchased 
at a very nominal sum, sometimes as low as $1.00 
per ton. From the fact that molasses is rich in car- 
bohydrates, it would seem that it is especially suited 
for the production of work. From the further fact 
that horses are extremely fond of sweets, it is not 
difficult to understand why molasses mixed with 
dry foods adds materially to the palatability of such 
foods. 

Molasses is fed !)}• sprinkling it upon dry feed 
after it has been diluted somewhat with water, or 
by mixing it with some absorbent, as peat dust, or 
a material rich in nitrogen, as dried blood. The 
"Agricultural Ga:^ette" of New South Wales de- 
scribes the feeding of cane molasses to 400 work 
horses at a sugar plantation in the Fiji Islands. It 
is stated that "fifteen pounds can be given to a 
1,270-pound working horse with advantage to the 
health of the animal and to the efficiency of its work. 
It produces no undue fattening, softness, nor injury 
to the wind. The high proportion of salts in it has 
no injurious effect. An albuminoid ratio as low as 
1:11.8 has proved highly suitable for heavy, con- 



370 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

tinuous work when a sufficient quantity of digesti- 
ble matter is given." The ration fed was 15 pounds 
of molasses, 4 pounds of corn, 3 pounds of bran, in 
addition to sugar-cane tops. Bran was found valu- 
able as a corrective for constipation produced by the 
molasses. 

Mr. G. H. Berns in the ''American Veterinary Re- 
view" gives an interesting report of the feeding of 
molasses to 100 horses at heavy work, averaging 
1,700 pounds in weight. These horses were each 
fed night and morning one qviart of molasses diluted 
with three quarts of water mixed with six pounds 
of cut hay, 1.5 pounds of corn meal and 2.5 quarts 
of coarse bran. The noon meal consisted of five 
quarts of dry oats and the night meal was rein- 
forced by eleven pounds of uncut hay. This ration 
proved to be remarkably successful in keeping the 
horses in excellent health, whereas they had for- 
merly been troubled to some extent v/ith spasmodic 
colic. The horses not only performed heavy work 
but gained in weight during- the trial. Mr. Berns 
says : "molasses of a good quality is a most nutri- 
tious food for horses, easily digested and assimi- 
lated, and will in many cases correct faulty digestive 
process ; and horses will do fully as much work 
and at the same time remain, as a rule, in much 
better condition than animals fed on dry food, while 
the cost of feeding is reduced from 25 to 33 per 
cent." He calculates one quart of molasses the 
equivalent of three to four quarts of oats. Other 
experiments, both abroad and in our own country, 
give further evidence that molasses is a valuable 
food for both work horses and driving horses. 

Cottonseed meal has been fed in tests to work 
horses at the North Carolina, New Hampshire and 
Louisiana Experiment Stations. At the former 
Station as high as two pounds per day were fed to 



WINTER RATIONS FOR WORK HORSES. 371 

each horse with satisfactory results. When this 
amount was increased to 3.5 pounds, the results 
were less favorable. At the New Hampshire Sta- 
tion cottonseed meal proved less satisfactory than 
oil meal as a part of the grain ration. From one to 
two pounds per day were fed to mules successfully 
at the Louisiana Station, which Station urges the 
importance of having the meal a good quality. 

Prairie hay, as has been mentioned, is very simi- 
lar in composition to timothy hay, both being rich 
in carbohydrates. It is entirely sa'fe to feed and is 
in popular favor in the West for horses. Like timo- 
thy, it has a small leaf surface, therefore curing 
easily and being comparatively free from dust. 

Cane, or sorghum hay, when properly cured is con- 
sidered a very good feed for horses. In the drier 
climates, where this fodder can be more success- 
fully growm than most other fodders, its use is very 
common. It is more relished when sown rather 
thickly to make the stems less coarse. More nutri- 
ents can be obtained per acre when sorghum is al- 
lowed to become fairly ripe. 

Kafir corn fodder is similar to sorghum, but is 
perhaps less relished, because of the presence of 
sugar in the latter. 

Cornstalks cured in the shock are sometimes fed 
to work horses as a substitute for timothy hay. 
At the New Hampshire Experiment Station it was 
found that this material is quite as valuable, pound 
for pound, as timothy, when fed either with corn 
and bran, or with corn and oats. The corn stover 
cost only one-third as much as the timothy hay, and 
therefore proved much more economical. For horses 
at moderate work the stalks may be fed uncut. For 
severe work there would be some advantage in 
shredding the stalks to make the fodder more easily 
masticated. Cornstalks are produced in abundance 



yj2 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

on all farms in the corn belt, and the substitution 
of this cheap feed for at least a part of the higher 
priced timothy or prairie hay is a matter worthy 
of the consideration of every farmer. Emphasis is 
again made upon the necessity of cutting the corn 
as soon as the ears harden and before the leaves and 
stalk become dead. 

Millet Hay Not a Safe Feed for Horses. — As 
reported by the North Dakota Experiment Station, 
where a thorough investigation was made, "Millet 
when used entirely as a coarse feed is injurious to 
horses : first, in producing an increased action of 
the kidneys ; secondly, in causing lameness and a 
.welling of the joints ; thirdly, in producing an in- 
fusion of blood into the joints ; fourthly, in destroy- 
ing the texture of the bone, rendering it softer and 
less tenacious so that traction causes the ligaments 
and muscles to be torn loose." This seems to agree 
with the experience of most farmers who have fed 
millet in liberal quantity to horses. 

Straw is sometimes 'made the roughage part of 
the ration for horses. While it has some value, it is 
nevertheless true that much more grain is needed 
when hay is replaced by straw. Idle work horses 
in winter no doubt can utilize some straw, but this 
material is so largely indigestible it is requiring too 
much of a horse to force him to gain a large part of 
his sustenance from it. Oat straw is considerably 
richer in nutrients than wheat straw and is more 
relished by all classes of animals. 

Oat hay, which has been cut while the seeds are 
in the dough and cured as hay, is found very satis- 
factory for horses, especially in winter, when the 
work may be light and the horse has more time lor 
mastication. If a part of the oats can be fed un- 
thrashed, the cost is lessened. Oats that have blown 
down and become lodged just before time for cut- 



WINTER RATIONS FOR WORK HORSES. 373 

ting with the binder may be cut with a mower and 
handled to advantage as hay. 

Clover hay has not been held in high favor as a 
roughage for horses for two principal reasons. First, 
clover with its large leaf surface very often goes 
in the mow or stack so moist that fermentation, 
which is caused by the multiplication of bacteria, 
takes place. During this oxidation, or slow burning 
process, particles of blackened, partially carbonized 
leaves are produced, whicli finely-divided matter 
rises in the air in clouds of dust whenever the hay is 
moved. Some of it enters the nostrils of the horse 
and is drawn into the lung cells, there setting up an 
irritation which often brings on a disease known as 
heaves. Secondly, there is a prevalent notion among 
horsemen, well founded or otherwise, that clover 
hay produces a softer flesh, and a horse so fed 
sweats more freely than one fed timothy. 

Bright, well-cured clover should be of considera- 
ble value for the work horse, but in feeding this 
hay it must be borne in mind that it is much richer 
in protein than the fodders and hay plants already 
described, which makes it obvious that the grain 
ration should be correspondingly more starchy. 
Clover when fed with corn alone should give a good 
balance of nutrients for the work animal. Could it 
be fed in a moistened condition to keep down any 
dust, it would doubtless be a satisfactory ration — 
in fact, a better ration than timothy and corn if the 
hay is fed in a limited quantity. 

Alfalfa, which belongs to the same family as 
clover, meets with similar objection. It is hkely to 
bo dusty, especially when grown in sections of con- 
siderable rainfall. It is also a well known fact that 
alfalfa makes animals drink more water, increasing 
the action of the kidneys. Whether or not this is 
in any way detrimental to the health of the work 



374 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

horse has not been determined. There is, also, a 
prejudice against it because it has a cathartic effect, 
more noticeable when horses are driven at a trot 
before the wagon. It is also true that horses fed 
alfalfa sweat more freely than horses fed timothy or 
prairie hay. 

A recent bulletin, however, issued by the Utah 
Station shows very favorable results for alfalfa 
when fed to work horses. One horse in each of two 
draft teams was fed timothy hay and the other 
horse in each team was fed alfalfa, all for a period 
of three months, from January to April. The grain 
ration consisted of bran and shorts in every case. 
The horses weighed about 1,400 pounds each. Dur- 
ing this first period one horse on timothy lost 47 
pounds and the other "jy pounds. One horse on al- 
falfa gained 4 pounds and the other lost 8 pounds. 
During the second period, from April until June, 
those which had been fed timothy were given alfalfa 
and those fed alfalfa were given timothy. One 
horse gained 5 pounds on timothy and the other 
lost 65 pounds. One horse on alfalfa gained 50 
pounds and the other gained 25 pounds. The feeds 
were again reversed during each of two later pe- 
riods with results in both favoring alfalfa. During 
most of the time the horses were at moderate work. 

The experiment shows strongly in favor of alfalfa 
as compared with timothy. The heavy losses on 
timothy may be partially accounted for by the fact 
that during these experiments something over twice 
as much hay as grain was fed. This was a large 
proportion of hay to grain for work horses. Timo- 
thy is masticated and digested with more difficulty 
than alfalfa, which gives the latter some advantage 
in heavy hay feeding. However, the results of this 
experiment would tend to disprove the theory that 
alfalfa can not be fed to work horses successfully. 



WINTER RATIONS FOR WORK HORSES. 375 

Those who have fed alfalfa are of the opinion, 
generally, that alfalfa if fed to work horses should 
be limited in quantity. A larger proportion of corn 
should be fed when alfalfa is used, since alfalfa it- 
self is rich in protein and a protein grain mixture 
would not be needed. It is better economy to fur- 
nish only enough protein to meet actual require- 
ments, because the carbohydrates are a cheaper 
source of energy. Alfalfa is wonderfully relished 
by horses, which makes it all the more necessary to 
guard against feeding an oversupply. 

Wintering Idle Farm Horses. — Upon the average 
farm the brunt of work comes during the growing 
season. Rather than keep all work horses in more 
or less confinement during the winter months, con- 
tinuing the liberal use of grain, it is advisable to 
rough through those not needed. Such horses 
should be given a protected yard and shed before 
cold weather sets in. As winter comes on, these 
horses grow a heavy coat of hair, which gives them 
excellent protection. They should be given all the 
hay, cornstalks, sorghum or oat straw they will con- 
sume, under which circumstances they will require 
but little or no grain. Where alfalfa and clover are 
fed to cattle and sheep on full feed there are al- 
ways refuse stems. These can be fed to such horses 
to excellent advantage. Alfalfa and clover, after 
having had some of the leaves or chaff first shaken 
out for pig feeding, are relished by horses. If the 
shed is kept well bedded, horses can be very com- 
fortably wintered in this way at much less expense 
than by stabling. Light grain feeding, together 
with exercise, should begin six weeks before the 
spring work is started, to put the horses in condition 
for work. 

Feeding the Driving Horse. — In feeding the driv- 
ing horse the same general plan that has been sug- 



376 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING, 

gested for work horses should be followed. The 
driver should not have such laxative foods as al- 
falfa, nor very much bran, and should also be given a 
somewhat smaller proportion of roughage. The 
driving horse will not stand heavy corn feeding. 

Feeding the Brood Mare. — There has been for 
some time a good demand for draft . and 
general-purpose horses for both city and farm 
work. Many farmers are situated so they may 
raise a team of colts each year, thereby add- 
ing materially to their annual revenues without 
seriously interfering with farm operations. A team 
of mares in foal can be worked until the day of foal- 
ing, if the work is not unusually severe and the 
driver is careful. In fact, moderate exercise is nec- 
essary for the mare in foal. Such a mare should be 
fed much as has been suggested for work horses, 
with perhaps the addition of somewhat more pro- 
tein food like bran or a little oil meal, as foods rich 
in protein and mineral matter are especially valu- 
able for mares carrying young. Clover or alfalfa 
hay, however, frequently causes abortion in work 
mares. 

Care of the Mare. — After foaling, the mare should 
be given several days of rest, not only to enable her 
to recover her strength, but to give the young colt 
the proper start. During the first few days of recu- 
peration a hot bran mash fed once a day has both a 
coohng and a laxative effect, which is extremely ben- 
eficial. Some farmers make a practice of permitting 
the foal to go to the field with the team, while others 
prefer to keep the colt in the barn. During the first 
few weeks it is better for the colt to be given nour- 
ishment oftener than three times a day. For this 
reason he is perhaps better ofif in the field with the 
team if no serious inconvenience is caused. When a 
little older such a colt may be kept in the barn and 



WINTER RATIONS FOR WORK HORSES. 377 

given nourishment when the mare comes from 
work. Two colts are company for each other, which 
makes them more contented both in the field and 
when confined together in the stable. Young colts 
should be given oats rather liberally, with a lit- 
tle bran and shelled corn as early as they can be 
taught to eat. If eating well at the age of five 
months, they can be weaned from the dam without 
as much shrinking as when unaccustomed to grain. 

Rearing the Weanling. — Growing colts should 
have more protein food than was recommended for 
work horses. During the summer, clover, alfalfa or 
bluegrass pastures are excellent. During the winter 
considerable clover or alfalfa can also be fed if it 
is not too dusty. If other forms of roughage than 
these are used, bran or some other protein foods 
must be fed along with oats. The colt should be 
fed in a way that will bring about the best develop- 
ment at a moderate cost. Rough feed should be fed 
generously, with sufficient grain to keep the colt in 
good growing condition. 

Grinding grain for horses is not ec©nornical un- 
less a horse has poor teeth. Experiments tend to 
show that results obtained by grinding grain are not 
enough better to pay for the cost of grinding. As 
has already been stated, the animal can use energy 
more economically than the steam engine, because 
of a less waste of power. This same principle un- 
doubtedly holds true in connection with cutting hay 
or shredding fodder. The Utah Station reports a 
falling off in weight when horses were fed cut timo- 
thy hay, caused by the sharp ends. Clover and al- 
falfa, cut, gave slightly better results than uncut 
hay, but not enough better to pay for cutting. 

Watering horses before feeding and after feeding 
have been tested to note possible dififerences in re- 
sults. The .experimenter concludes that "horses 



378 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

should be watered both before and after eating." 

Salt in Hmited quantity should be placed above 
the manger often enough to furnish the horse with 
what the system needs. It is perhaps better not to 
have it within reach at all times, as some horses 
will eat to excess. 

Bedding should always be used liberally. A 
horse at hard work needs rest at night, and much 
more rest is had when the horse is given a good bed 
of straw. It should not be permitted to become 
foul, as such things not only lessen the comfort of 
the animal but promote disease. 

Shelter in the winter time should be warm enough 
to keep work horses comfortable while at rest. From 
the viewpoint of feeding, a warm barn is most 
economical. This does not mean that horses should 
be kept too warm for comfort or should be deprived 
of fresh air, the latter being especially important. 
The lack of blankets in winter for covering horses 
standing in the cold is not only cruel but costly. 

Shelter in summer is primarily to keep horses out 
of the hot sun's rays while at rest. A secondary value 
of shelter in late summer is protection from flies. 
Zuntz found that a horse excreted lo per cent more 
carbon dioxide while fighting flies, and therefore 
used correspondingly more food when thus irri- 
tated. Horses have little natural protection from 
flies, and nets pay for themselves in a short time 
by an actual saving of food. Nor is it unreason- 
able to think that netting on the windows and doors of 
stables would not more than pay for the trouble and 
material. Stalls should be darkened when flies are 
troublesome. 

Quietness in Handling Horses. — The horse is a 
most sensitive animal, some individuals being 
much more sensitive than others. Striking them or 
shouting commands is a most contemptible practice, 



WINTER RATIONS FOR WORK HORSES. 379 

not only because It indicates a complete lack of ap- 
preciation for so noble a beast, but also because it de- 
stroys nervous energy in the horse, making him a less 
economical producer than if he were protected 
at all times from these nervous shocks. It is a re- 
flection upon our humanity, but it is nevertheless 
true, that in America more horses are made short- 
lived by ill-treatment and excessive work than by 
poor feeding. 



APPENDIX. 

METHODS OF GROWING THE LEGUMINOUS 

CROPS, COWPEAS, SOY BEANS AND 

ALFALFA. 



COWPEAS. 
By D. H. Otis. 

Leguminous crops play a very important part in 
successful farming, as they furnish grain and forage 
richer in protein than other crops, and at the same 
time are taking free nitrogen from the air through 
their root tubercles, and leaving it in the soil as avail- 
able plant food. Among the leguminous plants of spe- 
cial value to the farmer, cowpeas play an important 
part, particularly in the Southern states ; but their suc- 
cessful production is gradually finding a more north- 
ern latitude. Being an annual and producing but one 
crop in a season, they are not now even to be com- 
pared with alfalfa, which is a perennial and produces 
from three to four crops annually. Cowpeas are more 
adapted to fill the niche where alfalfa is not success- 
fully grown, or to be used as a catch crop after wheat 
or oats. Cowpeas wall mature a hay crop in from 
sixty to seventy days, and a seed crop in eighty to 
ninety days. 

Planting. — Being a warm weather crop, cowpeas 
should not be planted until the ground is thor- 
oughly warmed, preferably after corn planting or even 
later. Better results are usually obtained by planting 
in drills about 30 inches apart, and cultivating as for 
corn. If land is scarce they may be planted 20 inches 
apart, and cultivated by removing all but one shovel 

381 



382 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDlNa 

from the cultivator. This method will produce a little 
larger yield per acre, but requires more pains in cul- 
tivating. The peas may be seeded with an ordinary 
grain drill by closing some of the holes so as to plant 
the proper distance apart ; or they may be planted with 
a check row planter by removing the check row wire 
and substituting the chain so as to drill them instead of 
check-rowing them. It usually requires the plates 
with the largest holes, and the machine so adjusted as 
to seed as fast as possible. If it is desired to plant 
thick, the planter may go over the ground a second 
time, planting between the rows already planted. 
Cowpeas have also been planted successfully with the 
lister. When planted far enough apart to cultivate, 
one-half bushel of seed per acre is sufficient. When 
planted half the distance of corn rows, it will re- 
quire about one bushel per acre. 

Varieties. — The bush varieties are earlier in 
maturing than the trailing varieties, and they are 
also more easily harvested. For the latitude of Kan- 
sas and Nebraska, the "Whip-poor-will" and "Clay" 
are probably the best varieties. Properly planted in 
a good soil, similar to best corn ground, in which 
there is sufficient moisture to sprout the seed, cow- 
peas will continue to thrive, even though the 
weather is dry. 

Harvesting for Hay. — The harvesting of cow- 
peas for hay, which should be done when the pods are 
well formed and the lower leaves begin to turn yel- 
low, may be done with a mowing machine, or, better, 
with a bean harvester, the latter being a machine for 
cutting the roots just below the surface and throw- 
ing two rows together to form a windrow. The mow- 
ing machine does not cut low enough to get all the 
leaves, and, of course, does not place the crop in wind- 
rows. After remaining in windrows from 24 to 36 
hours, depending on the weather, this crop should be 



Appendix. 383 

put into small narrow cocks, and if possible covered 
with hay caps or with canvas, the purpose being to 
keep the leaves from becoming brittle and falling 
off before the stems are cured. When cured, which 
will probably require several days, it should be 
hauled to the mow or stack. 

Harvesting for Seed. — The growing of cowpeas 
for seed is a rather laborious process, as the pods 
ripen at different intervals and it makes the harvest- 
ing at any one time impossible ; consequently the pods 
have to be gathered by hand picking. The pods may 
be threshed with a common wheat thresher, by re- 
moving most of the concaves and the teeth, which 
would crack the seed. From 8 to 12 bushels per acre 
is considered a good yield. Most of our seed comes 
from the Southern states. 

As a Feed. — Cowpeas are usually fed as hay, 
the same as alfalfa or clover. If one has an ensilage 
or hay cutter, he would materially increase the value 
of cowpeas by cutting them. It should not be fed as 
the exclusive hay diet, as it is very rich in protein, but 
if fed with other roughage that is more carbonaceous 
in character, better results will be obtained from both 
classes of feed. Green cowpeas are liable to cause 
bloat in cattle or sheep when pastured or fed green. 
They make excellent hog pasture after the pods have 
formed. 

As Silage. — Cowpeas have been used success- 
fully as a milage crop, and for this purpose may be 
grown separately or planted with the corn and har- 
vested at the same time as the corn. In addition, cow- 
peas not only furnish more variety, but raise the pro- 
tein content of the silage and make it more valuable 
for feeding purposes. 

Alfalfa After Cowpeas. — The soil on which cow- 
peas have been grown, being free from weeds, is in 
an almost ideal condition for fall seeding of alfalfa 



384 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

or grass, as they leave the soil in a firm but mellow 
condition and filled with available nitrogen, so nec- 
essary in giving young plants, especially young al- 
falfa, a vigorous start. 

SOY BEANS. 
By D. H. Otis. 

Under the conditions existing in Kansas and Ne- 
braska, cowpeas seem more adapted for forage, and 
soy beans for grain. 

Soy Beans a Profitable Crop. — The soy bean seed 
contains 29.6 lbs. digestible protein in every hundred- 
weight, which is a little more than oil meal. The av- 
erage yield of soy beans is not very heavy, and to the 
one used to comparing everything with corn it will 
seem unprofitable. The average yield at the Kansas 
Experiment Station for 12 years was 12 bushels per 
acre, while corn planted alongside the beans yielded 
31.6 bushels per acre, and Kafir corn 43,8 bushels 
per acre. Comparing these yields on the basis of pro- 
tein produced, the soy beans outrank both corn and 
Kafir corn. As soy bean meal will take the place of 
oil meal, pound for pound, and as the latter costs 
from $20 to $25 per ton, it will be seen that soy 
beans are, after all, a very profitable crop. 

Planting. — Soy beans can stand dry weather and 
are not injured by chinch bugs. Like cowpeas, they 
are a warm weather plant, and should not be seeded 
until all possible danger from frost is past. They are 
usually planted after corn plantmg, and very fair yieldj 
have been obtained when planted after wheat or oat 
harvest. They should not be planted broadcast, but 
preferably drilled in rows from 30 to 42 inches apart, 
with the beans from one to two inches apart in the row. 
One-half bushel is sufficient seed for an acre. Surface 
planting usually gives the best results, although listing 
at times has been successful. They can be planted with 



Appendix. 385 

a wheat drill by closing some of the holes, or they 
may be seeded with the corn planter. Cultivation is 
the same as for corn. 

Harvesting for Grain. — The harvesting of soy 
beans should take place when the pods turn brown, and 
before the beans are quite ripe ; otherwise the pods 
will break open and the beans be wasted. The pods 
fomi very close to the ground, and for this reason the 
harvesting should be done with the bean harvester or 
some similar contrivance, as a cultivator relieved of 
its shovels and having bolted to the inner shank of 
each beam a horizontal knife, set at such an angle as 
to prevent clogging. As soon as cut, the beans 
should be partially cured in the windrow, and in 
about 24 hours should be cocked, and, if possible, 
covered with hay caps or canvas, remaining thus 
several days until properly cured. 

Threshing. — When weather conditions are un- 
favorable for harvesting and the beans shatter, they 
can be profitably fed by allowing the hogs to run 
in the field after the crop is removed. The thresh- 
ing can be done with a common wheat thresher by 
using blank concaves to prevent the cracking of the 
beans. 

Curing the Beans for Seed, — When the beans are 
intended for seed they should not be stored in 
large quantities, but rather spread over a large sur- 
face, not over two feet deep : otherwise they are 
liable to heat and their germinating power will be 
destroyed. 

Harvesting for Hay. — When it is desired to har- 
vest for forage, the plants should be cut as soon as 
the beans are well formed, and cured in the same 
w^ay as when harvested for grain. 

Soy Beans as Feed. — Since soy beans are as rich 
in protein as oil meal, they should be fed with 
the same care and discretion that one would use 



386 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

when feeding oil meal. In no case should soy 
beans be used as the exclusive grain ration. One- 
sixth to one-fifth soy beans in the grain is usually 
sufficient and is an economical feed. Experi- 
ments at the Kansas Experiment Station with 
hogs show that there is a saving of from 13 per 
cent to 37 per cent of the grain required to produce 
a hundred pounds of gain when soy beans form a 
part of the ration. When practicable soy beans 
should be ground, but very good results have been 
obtained by feeding the beans whole to hogs. Stock 
of all kinds like them as a part ration, but they are 
especially adapted to young, growing stock to de- 
velop bone and muscle. 

Alfalfa, etc.. After Soy Beans. — Soy beans, like 
cow peas, have a very beneficial effect on the soil, 
and are an excellent crop to precede alfalfa, red 
clover and grasses. When the farmer can grow 
his protein in the form of alfalfa, it is undoubtedly 
cheaper than the growing of soy beans, and on ac- 
count of the small yield their use on an alfalfa 
farm would be limited ; but where alfalfa has not 
been a success and there is a lack of protein in 
the feeding stuffs, or where they can be grown 
as a catch crop after wheat or oats, soy beans de- 
serve favorable consideration. 

ALFALFA. 
By E. G: Montgomery. 

Soil. — Any good corn land will raise alfalfa, 
providing water does not stand too near the surface. 
Alfalfa is grown successfully not only in sandy soil 
and light loam, but in heavy clay. It will not do 
in peaty soils or on land where water stands, or 
where the land is heavily flooded during the growing 
season. In many of the older farming districts 
soils of good fertility are found that are, however, 



Appendix. 387 

sour, or acid. Alfalfa will not grow on such soils 
until enough lime has been applied to the soil to 
correct the acidity. 

Inoculation of the soil is very important in dis- 
tricts where alfalfa has never been grown before. 
The plant will not succeed unless the particular 
bacteria which form the nodules on its roots and 
take the nitrogen from the air are present in the 
soil. Inoculation may be made either with soil 
taken from an old alfalfa field or by the use of 
the cultures now on the market for that purpose. 

The soil should be prepared very carefully. The 
ground should be well plowed, then thoroughly 
worked down with harrow and disk until a fine, 
firm seed bed is secured. It will never pay to half 
prepare ground for alfalfa. 

Seeding. — Alfalfa seed is generally sown alone in 
the W^est. The main reason for this is that there 
is often only enough rain to carry one crop on the 
land successfully, and there is always danger of hot, 
dry weather immediately after harvest. On rich 
soils, in regions where there is assurance of an 
abundance of rain during the whole season, it may 
be safe to sow with a nurse crop. The seed is usually 
sown at the rate of about 20 pounds per acre, 
though there are successful alfalfa growers who 
consider 15 pounds sufficient. Broadcast seeding is 
generally considered safer than drilling, owing to 
the danger of the young plants being covered in the 
drill rows by heavy rains washing the dirt in. After 
broadcasting the seed, cover with a harrow. If a 
poor stand is obtained or if it kills out in spots, 
parts of the field may be disked early in the spring 
and resown, the seeds being covered with a smooth- 
ing harrow. 

Spring seeding is generally practiced, sowing the 
seed as soon as the soil can be worked. 



388 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



Fall seeding, however, is coming rapidly into fa- 
vor, since the use of the land is not lost during a 
Avhole season, and it is not necessary to go to the 
expense of keeping down weeds. The greatest ob- 
jection to fall seeding is the fact that falls are often 
too dry to insure a good growth. The seed should 
be sown at least six or eight weeks before killing 
frost. 

Care. — If spring sown, it will be necessary to 
keep weeds down the first year by cutting 




Alfalfa. Showing advantage of early fall sowing. Beginning on 
the left of the picture the seed was sown August 19, Septem- 
ber ir> and October 1. respectively. All were dug up April l.S 
of the following spring. 



with the mowing machine, setting the cutter bar 
four or five inches high. Do this whenever the 
weeds threaten to destroy the alfalfa, which they 
can easily do. Repeat as often as necessary. If 
there is much trash after cutting, rake it up and haul 
it ofif. Do not pasture the first year. 



Appendix. 389 

Cutting for Hay. — The second year two to four 
crops of hay should be secured. The proper time 
to cut is when about one-tenth to one-fifth of the 
plants are in bloom. Much more hay will be se- 
cured during the season by cutting at this time 
than later, and it will be of better quality. 

The seed crop is generally taken from the sec- 
ond or third cutting. It takes rather dry weather 
to cause the plant to set seed. For that reason 
it seldom produces a profitable seed crop in a humid 
climate, or when there is a large amount of rain 
during the growing season. The seed crop is usu- 
ally cut with a mower and threshed with a clover 
huller or an ordinary threshing machine. 

Thickening the Stand. — Disking the old alfalfa 
sod is often practiced to thicken up the stand. 
The sod should not be disked until it is at least two 
or three years old. The disks should be set almost 
straight, so as to split the crowns but not cut the 
plants off. Disking should be done in early spring 
before growth starts. It is usually best to follow 
the disk with a smoothing harrow. 

Manuring the sod is always beneficial, especially 
if the soil is very sandy or poor. Give a moderate 
dressing of well rotted manure during the winter. 

Varieties. — Turkestan alfalfa gives promise of 
being more drought resistant than ordinary alfalfa, 
and may be valuable in semiarid regions, but it 
does not yield so well in humid regions. Alfalfa 
adapts itself more or less to new conditions, and 
i* has been found that alfalfa from Northern-grown 
seed is less subject to winterkilling than from 
Southern-grown seed. As a general rule seed 
should be procured which has been grown under 
conditions similar to those under which it is to be 
sown. 



390 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



TABLES. 

By permission of the author, the following tables 
are taken from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding: a 
Handbook for the Student and Farmer" (Sixth 
Edition). In compounding rations, use Table H, 
which gives digestible nutrients. 

Table I. Average Composition of American Feed- 
ing Stuffs. 

"This table is mainly from Farmers' Bulletin 22, 
United States Department of Agriculture, 1895, 
which in turn is based on Jenkins and Winton's 
tables in Bulletin 11, Office of Experiment Sta- 
tions, Department of Agriculture, Washington. 

"Analyses not from the source above mentioned 
are in most cases from the following: "Zusam- 
mensetzung der Futterm., Dietrich and Konig; 
Farm Foods, Wolfif, English edition, Cousins ; Woll, 
Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen ; Holland, 
Report Massachusetts (Hatch) Experiment Sta- 
tion, 1896; Jenkins and Winton's tables; and Bul- 
letin 87, New Jersey Experiment Station :" 







Percentage 


composition. 




*ti 4) 


Feeding stuflfs. 


Water. 


Ash. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Crude 
fiber. 


Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 


Ether 

ex- 
tract. 


£ 


Concentrates — 
















Barley 


10.9 


2.4 


12.4 


2.7 


69.8 


1.8 


10 


Barley meal 


11.9 


2.6 


10.5 


6.5 


66.3 


2.2 


3 


Barley screeniDgs . . . 


12.2 


3.6 


12.3 


7.3 


61.8 


2.8 





Bran, all analyses. ... 


11.9 


5.8 


15.4 


9.0 


53.9 


4.0 


88 


Bran, spring wheat. . 


11..5 


5.4 


16.1 


8.0 


54.5 


4.5 


10 


Bran, winter wheat. . 


12.3 


5.9 


16.0 


8.1 


53.7 


4.0 


7 


Brewers' grains, wet. 


75.7 


1.0 


5.4 


3.8 


12.5 


1.6 


15 


Brewers ' grains, driec 


8.2 


3.6 


19.9 


11.0 


51.7 


5.6 


3 


Broom-eorn seed . . . . 


11.5 


3.4 


10.2 


7.1 


63.6 


3.0 


2 


Buckwheat 


12.6- 
14.6 


2.0 
1.0 


10.0 
6.9 


8.7 
0.3 


64.5 

75.8 


2.2 
1.4 


8 


Buckwheat flour . . . 


4 


Buckwheat hulls . . . 


13.2 


2.2 


4.6 


43.5 


35.3 


1.1 


2 


Buckwheat bran . . . 


10.5 


3.0 


12.4 


31.9 


38.8 


3.3 


2 



Appendix. 



391 



TABLE I. 



-Average Composition of American Feeding 
Stuffs. — Continued. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Percentage composition. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Crude 
fiber. 



Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 



^q 



Concentrates — Cont. 
Buckwheat shorts . . . 11.1 
Buckwheat middlings. 13.2 

Cbcoanut cake 10.3 

Corn, dent 10.6 

Corn, flint 11.3 

Corn, sweet 8.8 

Corn meal 15.0 

Corn cob 10.7 

Corn and cob meal. . 15.1 

Corn bran 9.1 

Corn germ 10.7 

Cotton seed 10.3 

Cotton seed, roasted. . 6.1 
Cotton-seed meal .... 8.2 
Cotton-seed hulls .... 11.1 
Cotton-seed kernels 
(without hulls) ... 6.2 

Cowpea 14.8 

Cream gluten 8.1 

Dried starch and su- 
gar feed 10.9 

Flax seed 9.2 

Flax seed, ground. ... 8.1 
Flour, dark feeding. . 9.7 
Flour, high grade. . . . 12.2 

Flour, low grade 12.0 

Germ meal 8.1 

Gluten meal 8.2 

Gluten feed 7.8 

Grano-gluten 5.8 

Hominy chops 11.1 

Horse bean 11.3 

Hungarian grass seed. 9.5 

Kafir-corn seed 9.3 

Linseed meal, old 

process 9.2 

Linseed meal, new 

process 10.1 

Maize feed, Chicago. 9.1 

Malt sprouts 10.2 

Middlings 12.1 



5.1 


27.1 


8.3 


40.8 


7.6 


2 


4.8 


28.9 


4.1 


41.9 


7.1 


3 


5.9 


19.7 


14.4 


38.7 


11.0 




1.5 


10.3 


2.2 


70.4 


5.0 


86 


1.4 


10.5 


1.7 


70.1 


5.0 


68 


1.9 


11.6 


2.8 


66.8 


8.1 


26 


1.4 


9.2 


1.9 


68.7 


3.8 


77 


1.4 


2.4 


30.1 


54.9 


0.5 


18 


1,5 


8.5 


6.6 


64.8 


3.5 


7 


1.3 


9.0 


12.7 


62.2 


5,8 


5 


4.0 


9.8 


4.1 


64.0 


7.4 


3 


3.5 


18.4 


23.2 


24.7 


19.9 


5 


5.5 


16.8 


20.4 


23.5 


27.7 


2 


7.2 


42.3 


5.6 


23.6 


13.1 


35 


2.8 


4.2 


46.3 


33.4 


2.2 


20 


4.7 


31.2 


3.7 


17.6 


36.6 


2 


3.2 


20.8 


4.1 


55.7 


1.4 


5 


0.7 


36.1 


1.3 


39.0 


14.8 


3 


0.9 


19.7 


4.7 


54.8 


9.0 


4 


4.3 


22.6 


7.1 


23.2 


33.7 


50 


4.7 


21.6 


7.3 


27.9 


30.4 


2 


4.3 


19.9 


3.8 


56.2 


6.2 


1 


0.6 


14.9 


0.3 


70.0 


2.0 


1 


2.0 


18.0 


0.9 


63.3 


3.9 


1 


1.3 


11.1 


9.9 


62.5 


7.1 


6 


0.9 


29.3 


3.3 


46.5 


11.8 


20 


1.1 


24.0 


5.3 


51.2 


10.6 


11 


2.8 


31.1 


12.0 


33.4 


14.9 


1 


2.5 


9.8 


3.8 


64.5 


8.3 


12 


3.8 


26.6 


7.2 


50.1 


1.0 


1 


5.0 


9.9 


7.7 


63.2 


4.7 


1 


1.5 


9.9 


1.4 


74.9 


3.0 


1 



5.7 32.9 8.9 35.4 7.9 21 

5.8 33.2 9.5 38.4 3.0 14 
0.9 22.8 7.6 52.7 6.9 3 
5.7 23.2 10.7 48.5 1.7 4 
3.3 15.6 4.6 60.4 4.0 32 



392 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



TABLE I. — Average Composition of American Feeding 
Stuffs. — Continued. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Percentage composition. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Crude 
fiber. 



Nitro- Ether 
gen-free ex- 
extract, tract. 



Concentrates — Cont. 

Millet seed 14.0 3.3 11.8 9.5 57 A 4.0 

Oats 11.0 3.0 11.8 9.5 59.7 5.0 30 

Oat dust 6.5 6.9 13.5 18.2 50.2 4.8 2 

Oat feed 7.7 3.7 16.0 6.1 59.4 7.1 4 

Oat hulls 7.3 6.7 3.3 29.7 52.1 1.0 1 

Oatmeal 7.9 2.0 14.7 0.9 67.4 7.1 6 

Palm-nut meal 10.4 4.3 16.8 24.0 35.0 9.5 600 

Peanut kernel (with- 
out hulls) 7.5 2.4 27.9 7.0 15.6 39.6 7 

Peanut meal 10.7 4.9 47.6 5.1 23.7 8.0 2480 

Pea meal 10.5 2.6 20.2 14.4 51.1 1.2 2 

Eape-seed cake 10.0 7.9 31.2 11.3 30.0 9.6 500 

Eice 12.4 0.4 7.4 0.2 79.2 0.4 10 

Rice bran 9.7 10.0 12.1 9.5 49.9 8.8 5 

Eice hulls 8.2 13.2 3.6 35.7 38.6 0.7 3 

Eice meal 10.2 8.1 12.0 5.4 51.2 13.1 2 

Eice polish 10.0 6.7 11.7 6.3 58.0 7.3 4 

Eye 11.6 1.9 10.6 1.7 72.5 1.7 6 

Eye bran 11.6 3.6 14.7 3.5 63.8 2.8 7 

Eye flour 13.1 0.7 6.7 0.4 78.3 0.8 4 

Eye shorts 9.3 5.9 18.0 5.1 59.9 2.8 1 

Shorts 11.8 4.6 14.9 7.4 56.8 4.5 12 

Soy bean 10.8 4.7 34.0 4.8 28.8 16.9 8 

Sorghum seed 12.8 2.1 9.1 2.6 69.8 3.6 10 

Starch feed, wet 65.4 0.3 6.1 3.1 22.0 3.1 12 

Sunflower seed 8.6 2.6 16.3 29.9 21.4 21.2 2 

Sunflower-seedcake.. 10.8 6.7 32.8 13.5 27.1 9.1 

Wheat, all analyses.. 10.5 1.8 11.9 1.8 71.9 2.1 310 

Wheat screenings . . . 11.6 2.9 12.5 4.9 65.1 3.0 10 

Wheat, spring : 10.4 1.9 12.5 1.8 71.2 2.2 13 

Wheat, winter 10.5 1.8 11.8 1.8 72.0 2.1 262 

Eoughage — 

Corn husks, field cured 50.9 1.8 2.5 15.8 28.3 0.7 16 

Corn leaves, " " 30.0 5.5 6.0 21.4 35.7 1.4 17 

Corn stover, " " 40.5 3.4 3.8 19.7 31.5 1.1 60 

Fodder corn, " " 42.2 2.7 4.5 14.3 34.7 1.6 35 
tKafir corn stover, 

field cured 13.4 9.3 5.5 27.9 42.0 1.7 2 

tAverage of Kansas (Bulletin 103) and Oklahoma (Bulletin 
37) tests. 



Appendix. 



393 



TABLE I. — Average Composition of American FEEDi>fG 
Stuffs. — Contin ued. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Percentage composition. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Crude Nit'O- Ether 
fli.on gen-freel ex- 
^''*^'- extract. I tract. 



EouGHAGE. — Cont. 

*Sorghum, field cured 94.2 8.2 5.8 23.3 55.5 1.5 
Corn forage, green. 

Uent varieties 79.0 1.2 1.7 5.6 12.0 0.5 

Dent, keruels glazed. 73.4 1.5 2.0 6.7 15.5 0.9 

Flint varieties 79.8 1.1 2.0 4.3 12.1 0.7 

Flint, kernels glazed. 77.1 1.1 2.7 4.3 14.6 0.8 
Fodder corn, all va- 
rieties 79.3 1.2 1.8 5.0 12.2 0.5 

Leaves and husks 66.2 2.9 2.1 8.7 19.0 1.1 

Stripped stalks 76.1 0.7 0.5 7.3 14.9 0.5 

Sweet varieties 79.1 1.3 1.9 4.4 12.8 0.5 

Sai) from grasses. 
Barley hay, cut in 

milk . . . '. 15.0 4.2 8.8 24.7 44.9 2.4 

Buttercups 9.3 5.6 9.9 30.6 41.1 3.5 

Hay from mixed 

grasses 15.3 5.5 7.4 27.2 42.1 2.5 

Italian rye grass 8.5 6.9 7.5 30.5 45.0 1.7 

Johnson 'grass 10.2 6.1 7.2 28.5 45.9 2.1 

Kentucky blue grass. 21.2 6.3 7.8 23.0 37.8 3.9 
Kentucky blue grass, 
cut when seed in 

milk 24.4 7.0 6.3 24.5 34.2 3.6 

Kentucky blue grass, 

cut when seed ripe. 27.8 6.4 5.8 23.8 33.2 3.0 

Hungarian grass 7.7 6.0 7.5 27.7 49.0 2.1 

Meadow fescue 20.0 6.8 7.0 25.9 38.4 2.7 

Mixed grasses and 

clovers 12.9 5.5 10.1 27.6 41.3 2.6 

Oat bay, cut in milk. 15.0 5.2 9.3 29.2 39.0 2.3 

Orchard grass 9.9 6.0 8.1 32.4 41.0 2.6 

Perennial rye grass. . 14.0 7.9 10.1 25.4 40.5 2.1 
tPrairie (native) ... 6.8 8.3 6.0 30.1 46.3 2.7 
Red top, cut at differ- 
ent stages 8.9 5.2 7.9 28.6 47.5 1.9 

Red top, cut in bloom 8.7 4.9 8.0 29.9 46.4 2.1 

'Colorado bulletin 93. 

JAverage of Colorado, Kansas and Nebraska analyses, 
hay is variable in composition because of mixed grasses. 



63 

7 
40 
10 

126 

4 

4 

21 



1 

2 

126 
4 

>) 

10 



4 

13 

9 

17 
1 

10 
4 



This 



394 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



TABLE I. — Average Composition of American Feedino 
Stuffs. — Continued. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Percentage composition. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Crude 
fiber. 



Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 



Hay from Grasses. — Cont. 

Eowen (mixed) 16.6 

Salt-marsh hay 10.4 

Swamp hay 11.6 

Timothy, all analyses. 13.2 
Timothy, cut in full 

bloom 15.0 

Timothy, cut soon 

after bloom 14.2 

Timothy, cut when 

nearly ripe 14.1 

White daisy 10.3 

Wild-oat grass 14.3 

Fresh grass. 

Barley fodder 79.0 

Barnyard millet 75.0 

Hungarian grass .... 71.1 
Italian rye grass, com- 
ing into bloom .... 73.2 

Japanese millet 75.0 

Kentucky blue grass. 65.1 
Meadow fescue, in 

bloom 69.9 

Oat fodder .* 62.2 

Orchard grass, in 

bloom 73.0 

Pasture grass 80.0 

Eed top, in bloom. ... 65.3 

Eye fodder 76.6 

Sorghum fodder .... 79.4 
Tall oat grass, in bloom 69.5 
Timothy, different 

stages 61.6 

Hay from legumes. 

Alfalfa 8.4 

Alsike clover 9.7 

Cowpea 10.7 

Crimson clover 9.6 

- Flat pea 8.4 

Japan clover 11.0 

Peanut vines (without 
nuts) 7.6 



6.8 


11.6 


22.5 


39.4 


3.1 


23 


7.7 


5.5 


30.0 


44.1 


2.4 


10 


6.7 


7.2 


26.6 


45.9 


2.0 


8 


4.4 


5.9 


29.0 


45.0 


2.5 


68 


4.5 


6.0 


29.6 


41.9 


3.0 


12 


4.4 


5.7 


28.1 


44.6 


3.0 


11 


3.9 


5.0 


31.1 


43.7 


2.2 


12 


6.6 


7.7 


30.0 


42.0 


3.4 


2 


3.8 


5.0 


25.0 


48.8 


3.3 


1 


1.8 


2.7 


7.9 


8.0 


0.6 


1 


1.9 


2.4 


7.0 


13.1 


0.6 


2 


1.7 


3.1 


9.2 


14.2 


0.7 


14 


2.5 


3.1 


6.8 


13.3 


1.3 


24 


1.5 


2.1 


7.8 


13.1 


0.5 


12 


2.8 


4.1 


9.1 


17.6 


1.3 


18 


1.8 


2.4 


10.8 


14.3 


0.8 


4 


2.5 


3A 


11.2 


19.3 


1.4 


6 


2.0 


2.6 


8.2 


13.3 


0.9 


4 


2.0 


3.5 


4.0 


9.7 


0.8 




2.3 


2.8 


11.0 


17.7 


0.9 


5 


1.8 


2.6 


11.6 


6.8 


0.6 


7 


1.1 


1.3 


6.1 


11.6 


0.5 


11 


2.0 


2.4 


9.4 


15.8 


0.9 


3 



2.1 3.1 11.8 20.2 1.2 56 



7.4 


14.3 


25.0 


42.7 


2.2 


21 


8.3 


12.8 


25.6 


40.7 


2.9 


9 


7.5 


16.6 


20.1 


42.2 


2.2 


8 


8.6 


15.2 


27.2 


36.6 


2.8 


7 


7.9 


22.9 


26.2 


31.4 


3.2 


5 


8.5 


13.8 


24.0 


39.0 


3.7 


2 



10.8 10.7 23.6 42.7 4.6 



Appendix. 



395 



TABLE I. — Average Composition of American Feeding 
Stuffs. — Continued. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Percentage composition. 



Pro- Crude 
tein. fiber. 



Nitio- 
gen-free 
extract. 



Hay from Legumes. — Cont. 

Pea vine 15.0 6.7 

Red clover 1.5.3 6.2 

Red clover, in bloom. 20.8 6.6 

Red clover, mammoth. 21.2 6.1 

Sanfoin 15.0 7.3 

Serradella 9.2 7.2 

Soy bean 11.3 7.2 

Vetch 11.3 7.9 

White clover 9.7 8.3 

Fresh legumes. 

Alfalfa 71.8 2.7 

Alsike clover 74.8 2.0 

Cowpea 83.6 1.7 

Crimson clover 80.9 1.7 

Flat pea 66.7 2.9 

Horse bean 84.2 1.2 

Red clover, different 

stages 70.8 2.1 

Serradella 79.5 3.2 

Soy bean 75.1 2.6 

Straiv. 

Barley 14.2 5.7 

Buckwheat straw .... 9.9 5.5 

Horse bean 9.2 8.7 

Oat 9.2 5.1 

Oat chaff 14.3 10.0 

Rye 7.1 3.2 

Soy bean 10.1 5.8 

Wheat 9.6 4.2 

Wheat chaff 14.3 9.2 

Silage. 

Apple pomace 85.0 0.6 

Barnyard millet and 

soy bean 79.0 2.8 

Corn 79.1 1.4 

Corn and soy bean . . 76.0 2.4 

Cowpea vine 79.3 2.9 

Cowpea and soy-bean 

vines, mixed 69.8 4.5 



13.7 


24.7 


37.6 


2.3 


1 


12.3 


24.8 


38.1 


3.3 


38 


12.4 


21.9 


33.8 


4.5 


6 


10.7 


24.5 


33.6 


3.9 


10 


14.8 


20.4 


39.5 


3.0 


1 


15.2 


21.6 


44.2 


2.6 


3 


15.4 


22.3 


38.6 


5.2 


6 


17.0 


25.4 


36.1 


2.3 


5 


15.7 


24.1 


39.3 


2.9 


7 


4.8 


7.4 


12.3 


1.0 


23 


3.9 


7.4 


11.0 


0.9 


4 


2.4 


4.8 


7.1 


0.4 


10 


3.1 


5.2 


. 8.4 


0.7 


3 


8.7 


7.9 


12.2 


1.6 


9 


2.8 


4.9 


6.5 


0.4 


2 


4.4 


8.1 


13.5 


1.1 


43 


2.7 


5.4 


8.6 


0.7 


9 


4.0 


6.7 


10.6 


1.0 


27 


3.5 


36.0 


39.0 


1.5 


97 


5.2 


43.0 


35.1 


1.3 


3 


8.8 


37.6 


34.3 


1.4 


1 


4.0 


37.0 


42.4 


2.3 


12 


4.0 


34.0 


36.2 


1.5 




3.0 


38.9 


46.6 


1.2 


7 


4.6 


40.4 


37.4 


1.7 


4 


3.4 


38.1 


43.4 


1.3 


7 


4.5 


36.0 


34.6 


1.4 





3.3 8. 



1.1 



2.8 


7.2 


7.2 


1.0 


9 


1.7 


6.0 


11.0 


0.8 


99 


2.5 


7.2 


11.1 


0.8 


4 


2.7 


6.0 


7.6 


1.5 


2 



3.8 9.5 11.1 1.3 



396 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



TABLE I. — Average Composition of American Feeding 
■ Stuffs. — Continued. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Percentage composition. 



Pro- 
tein. 



Crude 
fiber. 



Nitro- 
jen-free 
extract. 



Silage. — Cont. 

Field-pea vine 50.1 

Red clover 72.0 

Rye 80.8 

Sorghum 76.1 

Soy bean 74.2 

Boots and tubers. 

Artichoke 79.5 

Beets, common 88.5 

Beet, mangel 90.9 

Beet, sugar 86.5 

Carrot 88.6 

Parsnip 88.3 

Potato 78.9 

Ruta-baga 88.6 

Sweet potato 71.1 

Turnip 90.5 

Miscellaneous — 

Acorns, fresh 55.3 

Apples 80.8 

Apple pomace 76.7 

Beet pulp 89.8 

Beet molasses 20.8 

Buttermilk 90.1 

Cabbage 90.5 

Cow 's milk 87.2 

Cow 's milk, colostrum 74.6 

Distillery slops 93.7 

Dried sediment from 

distillery slops .... 5.0 

Dried blood 8.5 

Dried fish 10.8 

Ewe 's milk 81.3 

Goat's milk 86.9 

Mare's milk 91.0 

Meat scrap 10.7 

Prickly comfrey .... 88.4 
Pumpkin (garden).. . 80.8 
Pumpkin (field) 90.9 



3.5 


5.9 


13.0 


26.0 


1.6 


1 


2.6 


4.2 


8.4 


11.6 


1.2 


5 


1.6 


2.4 


5.8 


9.2 


0.3 


1 


1.1 


0.8 


6.4 


15.3 


0.3 


6 


2.8 


4.1 


9.7 


6.9 


2.2 


1 


1.0 


2.6 


0.8 


15.9 


0.2 


2 


1.0 


1.5 


0.9 


8.0 


0.1 


9 


1.1 


1.4 


0.9 


5.5 


0.2 


9 


0.9 


1.8 


0.9 


9.8 


0.1 


19 


1.0 


1.1 


1.3 


7.6 


0.4 


8 


0.7 


1.6 


1.0 


10.2 


0.2 




1.0 


2.1 


0.6 


17.3 


0.1 


12 


1.2 


1.2 


1.3 


7.5 


0.2 


4 


1.0 


1.5 


1.3 


24.7 


0.4 


6 


0.8 


1.1 


1.2 


6.2 


0.2 


3 


1.0 


2.5 


4.4 


34.8 


1.9 




0.4 


0.7 


1.2 


16.6 


0.4 


3 


0.5 


1.4 


3.9 


16.2 


1.3 


7 


0.6 


0.9 


2.4 


6.3 




16 


10.6 


9.1 




59.5 




35 


0.7 


4.0 




4.0 


1.1 


85 


1.4 


2.4 


i.5 


3.9 


0.4 


2 


0.7 


3.6 




4.9 


3.7 


793 


1.6 


17.6 




2.7 


3.6 


42 


0.2 


1.9 


0.6 


2.8 


0.9 


1 


11.3 


27.4 


8.0 


36.1 


12.3 


1 


4.7 


84.4 






2.5 


3 


29.2 


48.4 






11.6 


6 


0.8 


6.3 




4.7 


6.8 




0.9 


3.7 




4.4 


4.1 




0.4 


2.1 




5.3 


1.2 




4.1 


71.2 




0.3 


13.7 


144 


2.2 


2.4 


1.6 


5.1 


0.3 


41 


0.9 


1.8 


1.8 


7.9 


0.8 




0.5 


1.3 


1.7 


5.2 


0.4 





Appendix. 



397 



TABLE I. — Average Composition of American Feeding 
Stuffs. — Continued. 



Feeding stuffs. 



Percentage composition . 



Pro- 
tein. 



Crude 
fiber. 



Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 



Etlier 

ex- 
tract. 



2.0 


2.3 


2.6 


8.4 


0.5 


2 


0.7 


3.3 




4.7 


0.9 


96 


0.7 


3.1 




5.3 


0.3 


7 


0.6 


0.6 


3.2 


11.7* 




2 


1.1 


6.2 




4.8 


7.1 


7 


4.0 


2.0 


4.9 


12.7 


0.8 


1 


2.4 


2.6 


o o 


4.4 


0.4 




8.7 


44.1 


7.2 


9.4 


13.6 


3 


0.4 


0.6 




.5.1 


0.1 


46 



Miscellaneous. — Cont. 

Kape 84.5 

Skim milk, gravity. . . 90.4 

Skim milk, centrifugal 90.6 

Sorghum bagasse . . . 83.9 

Sow 's milk 80.8 

Spurry 75.7 

Sugar-beet leaves . . . 88.0 

tTankage 7.0 

Whey 93.8 

T^ble II. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fer- 
tilizing Constituents in American Feed- 
ing Stuffs. 

The data of this table for the digestible nutrients 
are derived mainly from the preceding table and 
digestion coefficients obtained at American Experi- 
ment Stations. "In other cases they are from Bul- 
letin 22, Office of Experiment Stations, United 
States Department of Agriculture, Washington ; 
Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen, Woll ; Farm 
Foods, Wolfif (English edition, Cousins) ; and Zu- 
sammensetzung der Futtermittel, Dietrich and Ko- 
nig. 

"The fertilizing constituents are principally from 
the Year Book for 1895, United States Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, with additions from 
Wolff, Dietrich and Konig, and Bulletin 87, New- 
Jersey Experiment Station. The table, as published, 
is taken from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding," by 
courtesy of the author, with exceptions as given in 
foot notes. 



tBulletins: Iowa (65), Indiana (108). 



398 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



TABLE II. — Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- 
stituents. — Continued. 





Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nutrients 
In 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro- 
tein 


Carbo- 

hy. 
drates 


Ether 
Ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 



Concentrates. Lbs. Lbs. 

Barley 89.1 8.7 

Brewers' grains, wet. 24.3 3.9 

Brewers ' grains, dried 91.8 15.7 

Broom-corn seed . . . 85.9 7.4 

Buckwheat 87.4 7.7 

Buckwheat hulls ...86.8 2.1 

Buckwheat bran .... 89.5 7.4 

Buckwheat shorts . . . 88.9 21.1 

Buckwheat middlings 87.3 22.0 

Cocoanut meal 89.7 15.6 

Corn, all analyses. . . 89.1 7.9 

Corn, dent 89.4 7.8 

Corn, flint 88.7 8.0 

Corn, sweet 91.2 8.8 

Corn cob 89.3 0.4 

Corn and cob meal. . 84.9 4.4 

Corn bran 90.9 7.4 

Cotton seed ........ 89.7 12.5 

Cotton-seed meal 91.8 37.2 

Cotton-seed hulls . . . 88.9 0.3 

Cowpea 85.2 18.3 

Dark feeding flour.. 90.3 13.5 

Flax seed 90.8 20.6 

Germ meal 89.6 9.0 

Gluten meal 91.8 25.8 

Glucose meal 91.9 30.3 

Gluten feed 92.2 20.4 

Grano-gluten 94.3 26.7 

High-grade flour . . . 87.6 8.9 

Hominy chops 88.9 7.5 

Horse bean 85.7 22.4 

Kafir corn 84.8 7.8 

Linseed meal, old 

process 90.8 29.3 

Linseed meal, new 

process 89.9 28.2 

Low-grade flour 87.6 8.2 

Malt sprouts 89.8 18.6 

Millet 86.0 8.9 

Oats 89.0 9.2 

Oat dust 93.5 8.9 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


65.6 


1.6 


15.1 


7.9 


4.8 


9.3 


1.4 


8.9 


3.1 


0.5 


36.3 


5.1 


36.2 


10.3 


0.9 


48.3 


2.9 


16.3 






49.2 


1.8 


14.4 


4.4 


2.1 


27.9 


0.6 


4.9 


0.7 


5.2 


30.4 


1.9 


36.4 


17.8 


12.8 


33.5 


5.5 








33.4 


5.4 


42.8 


21.9 


11.4 


38.3 


10.5 


32.8 


16.0 


24.0 


66.7 


4.3 


18.2 


7.0 


4.0 


66.7 


4.3 


16.5 






66.2 


4.3 


16.8 






63.7 


7.0 


18.6 






52.5 


0.3 


5.0 


.6 


6.0 


60.0 


2.9 


14.1 


5.7 


4.7 


59.8 


4.6 


16.3 


12.1 


6.8 


30.0 


17.3 


31.3 


12.7 


11.7 


16.9 


12.2 


67.9 


28.8 


8.7 


33.1 


1.7 


6.9 


2.5 


10.2 


54.2 


1.1 


33.3 






61.3 


2.0 


31.8 


21.4 


10.9 


17.1 


29.0 


36.1 


13.9 


10.3 


61.2 


6.2 


26.5 


8.0 


5.0 


43.3 


11.0 


50.3 


3.3 


0.5 


35.3 


14.5 


57.7 






48.4 


8.8 


38.4 


4.1 


6.3 


38.8 


12.4 


49.8 


5.1 


1.5 


62.4 


0.9 


18.9 


2.2 


1.5 


55.2 


6.8 


16.3 


9.8 


4.9 


49.3 


1.2 


40.7 


12.0 


12.9 


57.1 


2.1 






... 


32.7 


7.0 


54.3 


16.6 


13.7 


40.1 


2.8 


57.8 


18.3 


13.9 


62.7 


0.9 


28.9 


5.6 


3.5 


37.1 


1.7 


35.5 


14.3 


16.3 


45.0 


3.2 


20.4 


8.5 


3.6 


47.3 


4.2 


20.6 


8.2 


6.2 


38.4 


5.1 


2L6 




... 



Appendix. 



399 



TABLE 11.^— Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- 
stituents. — Continued. 





Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nutrients 
In 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro- Carbo- 
te- dXs 


Ether 
Ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 



Con centrates. — Cont . 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Oat feed or shorts. . . 9l'.3 12.5 46.9 2.8 17.2 9.1 

Oat hulls 90.6 1.3 40.1 0.6 5.2 2.4 

Oat meal 92.1 11.5 52.1 5.9 23.5 

Palm-nut meal 89.6 16.0 52.6 9.0 26.9 11.0 

Peas 89.5 16.8 51.8 0.7 30.8 8.2 

Peanut meal ... S9.3 42.9 22.8 6.9 75.6 13.1 

Eape-seed meal 90.0 25.2 23.7 7.5 49.6 20.0 

Rice S7.6 4.8 72.2 0.3 10.8 1.8 

Rice hulls 91.8 1.6 44.5 0.6 5.8 1.7 

Rice bran 90.3 5.3 45.1 7.3 7.1 2.9 

Rice polish 90.0 9.0 56.4 6.5 19.7 26.7 

Rye 88.4 9.9 67.6 1.1 17.6 8.2 

Rye bran 88.4 11.5 50.3 2.0 23.2 22.8 

Rye shorts 90.7 11.9 45.1 1.6 18.4 12.6 

Soja (soy) bean 89.2 29.6 22.3 14.4 53.0 18.7 

Sorghum seed 87.2 7.0 52.1 3.1 14.8 8.1 

Starch refuse 91.8 11.4 58.4 6.5 22.4 7.0 

Sugar meal 93.2 18.7 51.7 8.7 36.3 4.1 

Sunflower seed 92.5 12.1 20.8 29.0 22.8 12.2 

Sunflower-seed cakes. 91.8 31.2 19.6 12.8 55.5 21.5 

Wheat 89.5 10.2 69.2 1.7 23.6 7.9 

Wheat bran 88.1 12.2 39.2 2.7 26.7 28.9 

Wheat bran, spring 

wheat 88.5 12.9 40.1 3.4 

Wheat bran, winter 

wheat 87.7 12.3 37.1 2.6 

Wheat middlings 87.9 12.8 53.0 3.4 26.3 9.5 

Wheat shorts 88.2 12.2 50.0 3.8 28,2 13.5 

Wheat screenings... 88.4 9.8 51.0 2.2 24.4 11.7 

Roughage — 
Corn stover, field 

cured 59.5 1.7 32.4 0.7 10.4 2.9 

Fodder corn, field 

cured 57.8 2.5 34.6 1.2 17.6 5.4 

Fodder corn, green. . 20.7 1.0 11.6 0.4 4.1 1.5 
*Kafir corn stover, 

field cured 86.5 2.3 44.8 0.8 



Lbs. 
5.3 
5.2 

5!o 
9.9 

15.0 

13.0 
0.9 
1.4 
2.4 
7.1 
5.4 

14.0 
8.1 

19.9 
4.2 
.5.2 
0.3 
5.6 

11.7 
5.0 

16.1 



6.3 
5.9 

8.4 



14.0 

8.9 
3.3 



* Average of Kansas and Oklahoma tests. 



400 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



TABLE II. — Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- 
stituents. — Continued. 





Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nutrients 
In 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro- 
tein 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 


Ether 
Ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 



Roughage — Cont. 





Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


* Sorghum (cane) . . . . 


94.2 


2.5 


44.3 


0.9 






... 


Fresh grass. 
















Greeu barley 


21.0 


1.9 


10.2 


0.4 




... 




Hungarian grass. . . . 


28.9 


2.0 


16.0 


0.4 


3!9 


1.6 


5!5 


Kentucky blue grass. 


34.9 


3.0 


19.8 


0.8 






... 


Meadow fescue, in 
















bloom 


30.1 

37.8 


1.5 
2.6 


16.8 
18.9 


0.4 
1.0 


4.9 


1.3 




Oat fodder 


3.8 


Orchard grass, in 
















bloom 


27.0 
20.0 


1.5 

2.5 


11.4 
10.2 


0.5 
0.5 


4.3 
9.1 


1.6 
2.3 


7.6 


Pasture grasses, mixed 


7.5 


Peas and oats .'' 


16.0 


1.8 


7.1 


0.2 








Peas and barley .... 


16.0 


1.7 


7.2 


0.2 








Redtop, in bloom. . . . 


34.7 


2.1 


21.2 


0.6 








Rye fodder 


23.4 


2.1 


14.1 


0.4 


3^3 


i!5 


7!3 


Sorghum 


20.6 


0.6 


12.2 


0.4 


2.3 


0.9 


2.3 


Timothy, different 




stashes 


38.4 


1.2 


19.1 


0.6 


4.8 


2.6 


7.6 


Hay. 




Hungarian grass . . . 


92.3 


4.5 


51.7 


1.3 


12.0 


3.5 


13.0 


Kentucky blue grass. 


78.8 


4.8 


37.3 


2.0 


11.9 


4.0 


15.7 


Marsh or swamp hay. 


88.4 


2.4 


29.9 


0.9 








Marsh or swamp hay. 


92.1 


3.5 


44.7 


0.7 






... 


Meadow fescue 


80.0 


4.2 


43.3 


1.7 


9.9 


4!6 


21.0 


^'ixed grasses 


87.1 


5.9 


40.9 


1.2 


14.1 


2.7 


15.5 


Oat hay 


91.1 


4.3 


46.4 


1.5 








Orchard grass 


90.1 


4.9 


42.3 


1.4 


13.1 


4!i 


18!8 


t Prairie (native) . .. 


94.4 


3.7 


43.6 


0.9 








Redtop 


91.1 

83.4 


4.8 
7.9 


46.9 
40.1 


1.0 
1.5 


11.5 
16.1 


3^6 

4.3 


lo!2 


Rowen (mixed) . . . . 


14.9 


Soy-bean hay 


88.7 


10.8 


38.7 


1.5 


23.2 


6.7 


10.8 


Timothy 


86.8 


2.8 


43.4 


1.4 


12.6 


5.3 


9.0 


White daisy 


85.0 


3.8 


40.7 


1.2 








Straw. 
















Barley 


85.8 


0.7 


41.2 


0.6 


13.1 


3.0 


20.9 


Oat 


90.8 


1.2 


38.6 


0.8 


6.2 


2.0 


12.4 







*Colorado Bulletin 93. 
tDigestion coefficients obtained by Colorado Experiment Sta- 
tion. 



Appendix. 



401 



TABLE TI. — Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing c;on- 
STiTUENTS. — Continued. 





Dry 

matter 

in 100 

pounds. 


Digestible nutrients 
In 100 pounds. 


Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


Pro- C?,;*^"- 


Ether 
Ex- 
tract. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


Phos. 
phoric 
Acid. 


Pot- 
ash. 



Strav,'. — Cont. Lbs. 

Oat chaff 85.7 

Eye 92.9 

Wheat 90.4 

Wheat chaff 85.7 

FresJi legumes. 

Alsike, bloom 25.2 

Alfalfa 28.2 

Cowpea 16.4 

Crimson clover 19.1 

Bed clover, different 

stages 29.2 

Soy beau 24.9 

Legume hay and straiv. 

Alfalfa 91.6 

Alsike clover 90.3 

Cowpea 89.3 

Crimson clover 90.4 

Pea-vine straw 86.4 

Red clover, medium. 84.7 
Red clover, mammoth 78.8 
Soy-bean straw .... 89.9 
White clover 90.3 

Sila.ge. 

Alfalfa 27.5 

Barnyard millet and 

soy bean 21.0 

Clover 28.0 

Corn 20.9 

Corn and soy bean . . 24.0 

Cowpea vine 20.7 

Grass 32.0 

Sorghum 23.9 

Soy bean 25.8 

Boots and tubers. 

Artichoke 20.0 

Carrot 11.4 

Beet, common 13.0 

Beet, sugar 13.5 

Beet, mangel 9.1 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1.5 


33.0 


0.7 








0.6 


40.6 


0.4 


4.6 


2.8 


7.9 


0.4 


36.3 


0.4 


5.9 


1.2 


5.1 


0.3 


23.3 


0.5 


7.9 


7.0 


4.2 


2.7 


13.1 


0.6 


4.4 


1.1 


2.0 


3.9 


12.7 


0.5 


7.2 


1.3 


5.6 


1.8 


8.7 


0.2 


2.7 


1.0 


3.1 


2.4 


9.1 


0.5 


4.3 


1.3 


4.9 


2.9 


14.8 


0.7 


5.3 


1.3 


4.6 


3.2 


11.0 


0.5 


2.9 


1.5 


5.3 


11.0 


39.6 


1.2 


21.9 


5.1 


16.8 


8.4 


42.5 


1.5 


23.4 


6.7 


22.3 


10.8 


38.6 


1.1 


19.5 


5.2 


14.7 


10.5 


34.9 


1.? 


20.5 


4.0 


13.1 


4.3 


32.3 


0.8 


14.3 


3.5 


10.2 


6.8 


35.8 


1.7 


20.7 


3.8 


22.0 


5.7 


32.0 


1.9 


22.3 


5.5 


12.2 


2.3 


40.0 


1.0 


17.5 


4.0 


13.2 


11.5 


42.2 


1.5 


27.5 


5.2 


18.1 



3.0 8.5 1.9 



1.6 


9.2 


0.7 








2.0 


13.5 


1.0 








0.9 


11.3 


0.7 


2.8 


1.1 


3.7 


1.6 


13.0 


0.7 








1.5 


8.6 


0.9 








1.9 


13.4 


1.6 








0.6 


14.9 


0.2 








2.7 


8.7 


1.3 








2.0 


16.8 


0.2 


2.6 


1.4 


4.7 


0.8 


7.8 


0.2 


1.5 


0.9 


5.1 


1.2 


8.8 


0.1 


2.4 


0.9 


4.4 


1.1 


10.2 


0.1 





1.0 


4.8 


1.1 


5.4 


0.1 


1.9 


0.9 


3.8 



402 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



TABLE IT. — Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con- 
stituents. — Continued. 



Name of feed. 



Digestible nutrients 
j)ry In 100 pounds, 

matter 
in 100 
pounds. 



Pro- 
tein 



Carbo- 

hy- 
drates 



Ether 
Ex- 
tract. 



Fertilizing constitu- 
ents in 1,000 pounds. 



Nitro- 
gen. 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 



Roots and Tubeiis. — Cont. 

Lbs. Lbs. 

9.5 1.0 

21.1 0.9 

11.7 1.6 

11.4 1.0 



Flat turnip 

Potato 

Parsnip 

Euta-baga 

Miscellaneous— 

Acorns, fresh 

Buttermilk 

Cabbage 

Cow 's milk 

Cow 's milk, colostrum 

Beet pulp 

Beet molasses 

Dried blood 

Dried fish 

Meat scrap 

Prickly comfrey .... 

Pumpkin, field 

Pumpkin, garden . . . 

Rape 

Skim milk, gravity. . 
Skim milk, centrifugal 

Spiirry 

Sugar-beet leaves . . . 

*Taukage 

Whey 



44.7 

9.9 

15..3 

12.8 

25.4 

10.2 

79.2 

91.5 

89.2 

89.,3 

11.6 

9.1 

19.2 

14.0 

9.6 

9.4 

20.0 

12.0 

93.0 

6.6 



2.1 

3.9 

1.8 

3.6 

17.6 

0.6 

9.1 

52.3 

44.1 

66.2 

1.4 

1.0 

1.4 

1.5 

3.1 

2.9 

1.5 

1.7 

31.7 

0.8 



Lbs. 

7.2 

16.3 

11.2 

8.1 

34.4 
4.0 
8.2 
4.9 
2.7 
7.3 

59.5 

.0 

.0 

.3 

4.6 

5.8 

8.3 

8.1 

4.7 

5.2 

9.8 

4.6 

15.3 
4.7 



Lbs. 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 

1.7 
1.1 
0.4 
3.7 
3.6 

.0 

2.5 

10.3 

13.7 

0.2 

0.3 

0.8 

0.2 

0.8 

0.3 

0.3 

0.2 

13.6 

0.3 



Lbs. 
1.8 
3.2 
1.8 
1.9 



4.8 
3.8 
5.3 

28.2 
1.4 

14.6 
135.0 

77.5 

113.9 

4.2 

1.1 
4.5 
.5.6 
5.6 
3.8 
4.1 



Lbs. 
1.0 
1.2 
2.0 
1.2 



1.7 

1.1 
1.9 
6.6 
0.2 
0.5 
13.5 
120.0 
7.0 
1.1 

1.6 
1.5 

2.0 
2.0 
2.5 
1.5 



1.5 1.4 



Pot- 
ash. 



Lbs. 
3.9 
4.6 
4.4 
4.9 



1.6 
4.3 

1.8 

1.1 

0.4 

56.3 

7.7 
2.0 
1.0 
7.5 

6!9 
3.6 
1.9 
1.9 
5.9 
6.2 

1.8 



*Digestion coefiicieuts for dried blood used. 

Table III. Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. 

The German Feeding Standards have long been 
in general use as guides in compounding rations for 
farm animals. As mentioned in previous pages, 
there is now a prevailing impression among Ameri- 
can investigators that these standards call for more 
protein than is actually needed for best results. 
American investigations point to the conclusion 
that, for conditions such as prevail in this country, 



Appendix. 403 

a slight reduction of protein is to be recommended, 
though just how much it is impossible to say. A 
reduction of 10 per cent does not seem unreason- 
able. With a liberal use of corn, which is relatively 
high in fat, American rations necessarily show a 
higher percentage of fat than is specified in the Ger- 
man standards. Professor Henry, in his admirable 
book on "Feeds and Feeding," from which the tables 
in this appendix are taken, with exceptions as stated 
in foot notes, says : 

"The table of feeding standards here presented is 
taken from Mentzel & Lengerke's Landw. Kalender 
for 1898. It comprises the standards originally 
prepared by Dr. Emil v. \Yoliif for that publication, 
modified by Dr. C. Lehmann. 

''The standards are arranged to meet the require- 
ments of farm animals under normal conditions. 
The student should not accept the statements in 
the standards as absolute, but rather as data of a 
helpful nature to be varied in practice as circum- 
stances suggest." 

"The statements in the column headed 'Dry Mat- 
ter' should be regarded as approximate only, since 
the digestive tract of the animal readily adapts it- 
self to variations of 10 per cent or more from the 
standard of volume. 

"The column headed/Sum of Nutrients,' combines 
the data of the three preceding columns, the ether 
extract being multiplied by 2.4 before adding. In 
the first column of this division of the table, marked 
"Crude Fiber=i," all the digestible nutrients are 
included. In the second division, marked "Crude 
Fiber=J^," it is generally assumed that about 30 
per cent of the digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients 
consists of crude fiber, and one-half of this, or 15 
per cent, is deducted. Rations containing much 



404 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 

coarse forage should therefore be somewhat in- 
creased, because of their lower nutritive value. 

"The standards are for animals of normal size. 
Those of small breeds will require more nutrients, 
amounting in some cases to .3 of a pound of nitro- 
genous and 1.5 pounds of non-nitrogenous digesti- 
ble nutrients daily for 1,000 pounds of live weight of 
animals. 

"Narrowing the nutritive ratio in feeding full- 
grown animals is for the purpose of lessening the 
depression of digestibility, to enliven the temper- 
ment, or to increase the production of milk at the 
expense of laying on fat. 

"The different standards given for the same class 
of animals according to performance illustrate the 
manner and direction in which desirable changes 
should be made. 

"In considering the fattening standards the stu- 
dent should bear in mind that the most rapid fat- 
tening is usually the most economical, so that the 
standards given may often be profitably increased. 

"Standards for milch cows are given for the mid- 
dle of the lactation period with animals yielding 
milk of average composition. 

"The standards for growing animals contemplate 
only a moderate amount of exercise ; if much is 
taken, add 15 per cent — mostly non-nitrogenous 
nutrients — to the ration. If no exercise is taken, 
deduct 15 per cent from the standard." 



Appendix. 405 

TABLE III. — Feedino, Standards fob Farm Animals. 





Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. 




a 


Digestible nutrients. 


Animal. 


a 
S 




j2£ 


Sum of 
nutrients 






Crude fiber 

= 1 ='/j 


25" 



1. 


Oxen. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




At rest in stall 


18 


0.7 


8.0 


0.1 


8.9 


7.5 


11.8 




At light work 


22 


1.4 


10.0 


0.3 


12.1 


9.7 


7.7 




At medium work. . . . 


25 


2.0 


11.5 


0.5 


14.7 


12.0 


6.5 




At heavy work 


28 


2.8 


13.0 


0.8 


17.7 


15.0 


5.3 


2 


Fattening cattle. 


















First period 


30 


2.5 


15.0 


0.5 


18.7 


15.6 


6.5 




Second period 


30 


3.0 


14.5 


0.7 


19.2 


17.0 


5.4 




Third period 


26 


2.7 


15.0 


0.7 


19.4 


17.2 


6.2 


3 


Milch coics. 
When yielding dailj 


._ 
















11.0 pounds of milk. 


25 


1.6 


10.0 


0.3 


12.3 


10.2 


6.7 




16.6 pounds of milk. 


27 


2.0 


11.0 


0.4 


14.0 


12.2 


6.0 




22.0 pounds of milk. 


29 


2.5 


13.0 


0.5 


16.7 


14.4 


5.7 




27.5 pounds of milk. 


32 


3.3 


13.0 


0.8 


18.2 


16.0 


4.5 


4 


Sheep. 


















Coarse wool 


20 


1.2 


10.5 


0.2 


12.2 


10.0 


9.1 




Fine wool 


23 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


14.2 


12.0 


8.5 


5 


Breeding ewes. 


















With lambs 


25 


2.9 


15.0 


0.5 


19.1 


16.3 


5.6 


6 


Fattening sheej). 


















First period 


30 


3.0 


15.0 


0.5 


19.2 


16.5 


5.4 




Second period 


28 


3.5 


14.5 


0.6 


19.4 


16.9 


4.5 


7 


Horses. 


















Light work 


20 


1.5 


9.5 


0.4 


12.0 


10.0 


7.0 




Medium work 


24 


2.0 


11.0 


0.6 


14.5 


12.8 


6.2 




Heavy work 


26 


2.5 


13.3 


0.8 


17.7 


15.5 


6.0 


8. 


Brood soivs 


22 


2.5 


15.5 


0.4 


19.0 


6.6 


9. 


Fattening swine. 


















First period 


36 


4.5 


25.0 


0.7 


31.2 


5.9 




Second period 


32 


4.0 


24.0 


0.5 


29.2 


6.3 




Third period 


25 


2.7 


18.0 


0.4 


2^ 


!.0 


7.U 


10. Growing cattle. 


















Dairy breeds. 


















2- 3 150 


23 


4.0 


13.0 


2.0 


21.8 


21.0 


4.5 




3- 6 300 


24 


3.0 


12.8 


1.0 


18.2 


17.0 


5.1 




6-12 500 . 


27 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


15.7 


13.7 


6.8 




12-18 700 


26 


1.8 


12.5 


0.4 


15.3 


12.8 


7.5 




18-24 900 


26 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


14.2 


11.8 


8.5 



4o6 



PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 



TABLE III. — Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. 





Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. 




a 

"3 

a 


Digestible nutrients. 


Animal. 


a 

1 
o 


•§1 

5' 


^-1 


Sum of 
nutrients 






Crude fiber 
= 1 ='/s 


"E2 



11. Growing cattle. Lbs. Lbs. 

Beef breeds. 

2- 3 160 23 4.2 

3- 6 330 24 3.5 

6-12 550 25 2.5 

12-18 750 24 2.0 

18-24 950 24 1.8 

12. Growing sheep. 
Wool breeds. 

4-6 60 25 3.4 

6-8 75 25 2.8 

8-11 80 23 2.1 

11-15 90 22 1.8 

15-20 100 22 1.5 

t3. Growing slieep. 
Alutton breeds. 

4-6 60 26 4.4 

6-8 80 26 3.5 

8-11 100 24 3.0 

11-15 120 23 2.2 

15-20 150 22 2.0 

14. Growing swine. 
Breeding stock. 

2-3 50 44 7.6 

3-5 100 35 5.0 

5- 6 120 32 3.7 

6- 8 200 28 2.8 

8-12 250 25 2.1 

15. Growing, fattening swine. 

2-3 50 44 7.6 

3- 5 100 35 5.0 

5- 6 150 33 4.3 

6- 8 200 30 3.6 

9-12 300 26 3.0 



Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 



13.0 


2.0 


20.0 


21.5 


4.2 


12.8 


1.5 


19.9 


19.0 


4.7 


13.2 


0.7 


17.4 


15.8 


6.0 


12.5 


0.5 


15.7 


13.9 


6.8 


12.0 


0.4 


14.8 


13.2 


7.2 


15.4 


0.7 


20.5 


18.4 


5.0 


13.8 


0.6 


18.0 


15.8 


5.4 


11.5 


0.5 


14.8 


12.8 


6.0 


11.2 


0.4 


14.0 


12.0 


7.0 


10.8 


0.3 


13.0 


11.0 


7.7 


15.5 


0.9 


22.1 


20.9 


4.0 


15.0 


0.7 


20.2 


17.8 


4.8 


14.3 


0.5 


18.5 


16.3 


5.2 


12.6 


0.5 


16.0 


13.8 


6.3 


12.0 


0.4 


15.0 


12.8 


6.5 


28.0 


1.0 


38.0 


4.0 


23.1 


0.8 


30.0 


5.0 


21.3 


0.4 


26.0 


6.0 


18.7 


0.3 


25 


*.2 


7.0 


15.3 


0.2 


17 


.9 


7.5 


28.0 


1.0 


38.0 


4.0 


23.1 


0.8 


30.0 


5.0 


22.3 


0.6 


28.0 


5.5 


20.5 


0.4 


25.1 


6.0 


18.3 


0.3 


Of 


'.0 . 


6.4 



INDEX 



Alfalfa hay for beef cattle, 175. 

for chickens, 341. 

for cows, 56. 

for horses, 373. 

for pigs, 284. 

for sheep, 227. 

culture of, 386. 
Alfalfa pasture for cows, 98. 

for pigs, 270. 

for poultry, 33. 

for sheep, 210. 
Animal requiremeuts, 10. 
Animals dependent upon plants, 

12. 
Ash, 14. 

Baby beef. 150. 

arguments for, 150. 

feed after weaning for, 153. 

feed, the first winter for, 153. 

linishing on grass, 154. 

heifer calves for, 154. 

skim-milk calves for, 154. 

whole-milk calves vs. skim- 
milk calves for, 152. 
P.acon hogs, score-card of, 25!). 
Balanced ration, 23. 
Barley, 93. 

for beef cattle, 186. 

for horses, 368. 

for pigs. 293. 

for sheep, 243. 
Bedding for cattle, 147. 
Beef and milk production com- 
bined, 138. 
Beef carcass, 115. 

bone, 118. 

dressed weight, percentage of, 
114. 

high priced meat, llo. ' 

marbling, 119. 

meat fiber. 120. 

quality in meat, 115. 

requirements of, 115. 
Beef cattle, 113. (See steers.) 

alfalfa for, 175. 

barley for. 186. 

bedding for, 147. 

bran for, 187. 

cane for, 186. 

carcass of. 115. 

chaffed hay for, 189. 

condimental stock foods for, 
187. 

corn fodder for, 178. 

corn silage for, 181. 



Beef cattle, corn stover for, 

177. 

corn substitutes for, 186. 

cottonseed meal for, 187. 

crushed corn for, 188. 

dipping for lice, 149. 

early maturitv. importance of, 
126. 

earlv maturity, indications of, 
127. 

easy keepers, 130. 

evenness of flesh in, 119. 

external indications of gain- 
ing capacity. 121. 

feed-lot for, 146. 

feeder requisites, 120. 

gaining propensity, 121. 

gains depend upon type rath- 
er than breed. 123. 

grinding grain for, 188. 

high priced meat, 115. 

ideal beef steer, 128. 

Kafir corn for, 186. 

lean desirable, 119. 

maturity of, 126. 

meat fiber, ttxture in, 120. 

oats for, 186. 

protein foods for, 187. 

sale of, 184. 

salt for, 147. 

score-card for, 132. 

shelter for stock cattle, 145. 

shelter problem in, 143. 

shelter tests, 144. 

shipment of cattle, 184. 

shredded corn fodder for, 188. 

shredded stover for, 188. 

silage for, 181. 

sorghum for. 186. 

steer feeding. 143. 

stock cattle, shelter fo<-, 145. 

stock foods for, 187. 

three-year-old range steers, 
183. 

two-year-old range steers, 174. 

types of. 113. 

water for. 148. 

wheat meal for, 186. 

when to sell, 184. 

yearlings, 156. 
Beet leaves, 91. 
Beet pulp. 89. 

for beef cattle, 183. 

for sheep, 229, 
Blue grass, 97. 
Boars, feed for, 271. 

types of, 255, 258. 



407 



4o8 



INDEX. 



Bone, S. 118. 
Bran. .S4. 187. 
Breed tests, 125. 
Brewers' grains, 83. 
Brome grass, 98. 
Brood sows, 261. 

alfalfa for, 266. 

feed after farrowing for, 207. 

feed before farrowing for, 265. 

large houses for, 264. 

pasture for. 268. 

portable house for, 262. 

winter quarters for, 262. 
Brood mare, 877. 
Bull, 134. 

prepotency of, 134. 

selection of, 134. 

Cabbages, 92. 
Calculating rations, 28. 
Calves, 103. 

rations for, 157. 
Cane, 87, 181, 186, 371. 
Canadian field peas, 84. 
Carbohydrates. 15. 
Chaffed hay, 189. 
Cheap roughage, utilization of, 5. 
Chiclss, 321. 

bread for, 322. 

brooder houses, for, 317. 

coops for, 317. 

dry food for, 321. 

feeding of, 321, 326. 

moist food for, 322. 

overfeeding, 324. 

racks for feeding, 324. 
Chicijens, 309. 

alfalfa for, 341. 

Asiatic breeds, 314. 

beets for, 341. 

bloodmeal for, 340. 

cabbage for, 340. 

charcoal for, 327, 331. 

classification of fowls, 311. 

cleanliness, importance of, 
343. 

clover for, 341. 

cockerels, fattening, 327. 

colds, how prevented. 343. 

colds, remedy for. 318. 

corn feeding, dangers of. 338. 

diarrhoea in chicks, 326 : in 
fowls, 332. 

disease preventives, 343. 

disinfectants for, 321. 

Douglass mixture for, 326. 

dust-box for, 328. 

eggs, feeding for in winter, 
336. 

fowls, care in summer, 328. 

general-purpose breeds, 312. 

grain for. 323. 

green food for, 324, 340. 

grit for. 323. 331. 

ground bone for, 327, 340. 

Bens, feeding in summer, 331 ; 



Chickens, feeding in winter, 

333. 

houses for. 333. 

indigestion, how prtn-eiiled, 
343. 

industry in America, future 
of. 344. 

kerosene emulsion for, 330. 

laving breeds. 311. 

lice. 320, 328. 

meat for, 340. 

meat breeds. 314. 

Mediterranean breeds, 311. 

method of feeding, 342. 

mit3s, 329. 

moist food for. 322. 

moulting. 331. 

nest bugs, 33] . 

oyster shell. .^27, 331. 

practical for farmer. 309. 

protein, animal, 321, 327, 332, 
339. 

rape for. 331 

salt for. 342. 

sand for. 331. 

setting eggs. 315. 

shelter for, 311. 

silage for, 341. 

sitting hens, care of, 315. 

skim-milk for. 321. 326, 340. 

system, need of in America, 
344. 

water for. o25. 343. 

water fountains for, 325, 343. 

wood ashes for, 331. 
Clover hay for cows, 77. 

for pigs, 290. 

for lambs, 227. 

for horses, 373. 

for chickens, 341. 
Clover pasture. OS. 

for sheep, 208. 

for poultry. 331. 
Commercial protein foods for 
cows. 80. 

for beef cattle, 187. 
Condimental stock foods, 94. 

for beef cattle, 187. 

for pigs, 303. 

for poultry. 332. 
Cooking feed for pigs. 305. 
Corn, 55. 67. 

increase in nutrients during 
maturity. 70. 

method of harvesting, 72. 

time to harvest. 70. 
Corn fodder for cows, 60. 

for beef cattle, 178. 

for sheep, 235. 
Corn silage, 60, (see silage.) 

economy of storage of, 61. 

for beef cattle. 181. 

for horses. 371. 

for sheep, 228. 
Corn stover for cows, 58. 

for beef cattle, 177. 

for horses, 371. 



INDEX. 



409 



Coru substitutes, 92. 

for beef cattle. 186. 

for pigs, 293. 

tor sheep, 24:-i. 
Cottonseed meal for beef cat- 
tle, 187. 

for cows, 80. 

for lambs, 227. 

for horses, 370. 

for pigs. 283. 
Cowpeas, 83, 381. 
Cowpea hay. 77. 
Crude fiber. 16. 
Cruslied corn, 188. 
Cuts of beef, 110. 

Dairy bull, score-card for, 44.- 
Dairy cow, 37, 38. 

abusive treatment of. 101. 

alfalfa hay for, 56. 

alfalfa v.s. commercial proteiu 

foods for, 57. 
alfalfa pasture for, 98. 
barley for. 93. 
beet leaves for, 91. 
beet pulp for, 89. 
bluegrass for, 97. 
brome grass pasture for, 98. 
cabbages for, 92. 
Canadian peas for, 84. 
clover bay for, 77. 
clover pasture for, 98. 
condimental stock foods for, 

94. 
corn fodder for. 60. 
corn for. 55. 
corn silage for, 60. 
corn stover for, 58. 
corn substitutes for, 92. 
cottonseed meal for, 80. 
cowpeas for, S3, 
cowpea hay for, 77. 
dried molasses beet pulp for, 

90. 
dried brewers' grains for, 83. 
early spring pasture for, 97. 
emmer for, 93. 
feeding standards for, 52. 
fly remedies for, 99. 
fresh water for, 100. 
ghiten feed for, 84. 
gluten meal for, 82. 
grain on pasture for, 98. 
Hungarian grass for, 87. 
Kafir corn for. 93. 
legumes for, 55. 
linseed meal for, 81. 
malt sprouts for, 83. 
middlings for, 8.5. 
millet hay for, 87. 
nutrients for, 49. 
nutrients ior. influenced by 

quantity of milk, 51. 
nutrients for. influenced by 

per cent of fat, 51. 
nutritive ratio for, 49. 



Dairy cow, oat straw for, 88. 

oats for, 94. 

oil meal for, 81. 

prairie hay for, 87. 

profitable western ration for, 
76. 

proportion of roughness to 
concentrates for, 53. 

protetn foods for, 86. 

quantity of foods for, 48. 

ration for. 76. 86. 

red clover for, 77. 

roots for. 92. 

roughage for, 87, 89. 

I'ye for, 93. 

rye pasture for, 97. 

rye straw for, 88. 

salt for, 100. 

score-card for, 42. 

shelter in summer for, 100. 

silage for, 60. 

soiling for. 98. 

sorghum for, 87. 

soy bean hay for, 77. 

soy bean meal for, 83. 

speltz for, 93. 

spring pasture for, 97. 

succulent feeds for, 54. 

sugar cane for. 87. 

summer pasture for. 97. 

timothy hay for, 87. 

varietv in the roughage for, 
88. 

water for, 100. 

wheat bran for, 84. 

wheat for, 93. 

wheat pasture for, 97. 

wheat shorts for, 85. 

wheat straw for, 88. 
Dairy industry, 37. 
Dairy type, 39. 
Digestil}ility, determination of, 

20. 
Digestible nutrients of foods, 19. 
Digestive apparatus, 19. 
Dipping cattle, 149 ; pige. 306. 
Disinfectants, 306. 
Dressed weight, percentage of. 

114. 
Dried molasses beet pulp, 90 ; 

for sheep, 230. 
Dry cows, feeding of, 100. 
Dry sows, feed for, 269. 

Early maturity, 126. 
Egg, composition of, 9. 
Emmer, 93. 

for pigs, 294. 

for sheep, 243. 
Energy, source of, 362. 
Enjoyment, source of, S. 
Exercise, 36. 

Farm animals, living factories, 7. 
Farmer's cow, 136. 
Fats in plants, 14. 



4IO 



INDEX. 



Fatty tissues, 8. 
Feeder requisites, 120. 
Feeciing standards. 24, 52. 
l'"eed-lot tor cattle, 146 ; for 

sheep, 224. 
Field peas, 84. 
Flax straw, 18b. 
Flesh, evenness of, 119. 
Food constituents, 12. 
Food of maintenance, 10. 
Fresh cow, feeding of, 101. 

Gaining capacity, 121. 
(iermaa standards, 24, 52. 
Gluten feed, 84. 
(Jluten meal. 82. 

for pigs, 299. 
Grinding grain for beef cattle, 
188 

for pigs, 303. 

for horses, 377. 
Guineas, 353. 

Hogs, 253. (See pigs.) 

bacon type of, 258. 

breeds of, 255. 

breeding herd of, 261. 

digestive capacity of. 260. 

extent of industry, 253. 

lard type of. 255. 

score-cards for, 255, 259. 

types of, 253. 
Home market for crops, 4. 
Hungarian grass, 87. (See mil- 
let.) 
Horses, 357. 

alfalfa hay for, 373. 

barley for, 368. 

bedding for, 378. 

brood mare, feed for, 376. 

cane for, 371. 

clover hay for, 373. 

coach type ol, 360. 

colts, feed for, 377. 

cornstalks for, 371. 

cottonseed meal for, 370. 

draft type of, 357. 

feed in summer for, 364. 

feed in winter for, 368. 

grinding grain for, 377. 

Kafir corn for, 369. 

Kafir corn fodder for, 371. 

millet hay for, 372. 

molasses for. 369. 

oat hay for, 372. 

oat substitutes for. 366. 

oil meal for, 367. 

prairie hay for, 371. 

protein requirements for, 363. 

roadster, feed for. 375. 

roadster type of. 360. 

salt for, 378. 

score-card for, 358. 

shelter for, in summer. 378. 

shelter for, in winter, 378. 

sorghum for. 371. 

Straw for, 372. 



Horses, watering of, 377. 
wintering of, 375. 
winter rations for, 368. 

Ideal beef steer, 180. 
Inferior steer, 122. 

Kafir corn, 93. 

for beef cattle, 186. 
for pigs, 295. 
for horses, 369. 

Labor, distribution of, 5. 

Lambs, 

alfalfa hay for, 227. 
alfalfa pasture for, 210. 
barley for, 243. 
bedding for, 223. 
beet pulp for, 229. 
bloat in. 218. 
clipping, 237. 
clover hay for, 227. 
clover pasture for, 208. 
corn fodder, 235. 
corn silage for, 228. 
cottonseed meal for, 227. 
dried beet pulp for, 230. 
dried molasses beet pulp for, 

230. 
early spring, 203. 
emmer for, 243. 
experiment station tests with, 

246. 
feed-lot for, 224. 
grain feeding for, 203, 206. 
grain with clover for, 209. 
grain troughs for. 209. 
hay racks for. 221. 
housing facilities for, 204. 
late. 206. 

millet hay for, 228. 
oats for, 244. 
oats and peas for, 219. 
oil meal for, 227. 
pasture for, 208. 
prairie hay for, 228. 
protein roughage for, 227. 
quantity of feed for, 232. 
range, 232. 

rape feeding, value of, 215. 
rape after wheat for, 214 : in 

oats, 215 ; in corn, 217. 
rape pasture for, 212. 
roots for, 229. 
rye straw for, 231. 
sale of. 238. 
salt for. 223. 
screenings for, 244. 
self-feeder for, 
shock corn for, 235. 
Shelter for. 220. 
shredded fodder for. 236. 
sorghum hay for. 228. 
speltz (see emmer). 
straw for, 223. 



INDEX. 



411 



Lambs, sugar beet pulp for, 
221). 

timothy for, 228. 

water for, 22;^. 

wheat for, 244. 

wheat straw for, 231. 

winter, 202. 

winter rations for, 225. 

young, care of, 204. 
Lean of meat, 8, 119. 
Legumes, 55. 
Liberal feeding, importance of, 

31. 
Lice, 140. 
Linseed meal. Si. 

Maintenance ration, 10. 
Malt sprouts, 8;?. 
Meat carcasses, 8, 104. 
Meat as food, 113. 
Meat fiber, 120. 
Middlings, 85. 
Milk, 0. 

fat of, 9. 

mineral of, 9. 

protein of, 9. 

sugar of. 9. 
Milk production, 37, 45, 48. 
Milk production vs. beef produc- 
tion, .'iT. 
Millet, 87. 182. 293, 372. 
Mineral matter, 14. 
Molasses. 369. 
Mules. 361. 
Mutton type, 194. 

Nitrogenous compounds, 16. 
Nutritive ratio, 21. 

Oats for beef cattle, 186. 

for cows, 94. 

for lambs, 244. 

for pigs, 295. 

for horses, 365. 

for steers. 186. 
Oat hav, 372. 
Oat straw. 88. 

for beef cattle. 182. 
Oil meal, 81. 

ralatability, 32. 
I'asture for cows, 97. 

with grain for steers, 165. 

for lambs. 208. 

for sows, 268. 

for pigs. 275. 
Plant oils, 14. 
Pigs. 253. 

alfalfa hay for. 284. 

alfalfa hav (last cutting) for, 
287. 

alfalfa pasture for, 276. 

barley for, 293. 

cane seed for, 295. 

charcoal and ashes for. 306. 

cleanliness in pens. 306. 

clover hay for, 290. 



Pigs, clover pasture for. 275. 

condimental stock foods for, 
303. 

cooked feed for, 305. 

corn silage for. 296. 

corn substitutes for, 293. 

cottonseed meai for, 283. 

disinfectants for, 306. 

dipping for lice, 306. 

dried blood for, 302. 

exercise for, 307. 

fall pigs, 278. 

feed for before weaning, 270. 

feed for when first weaned, 
274. 

frosted wh^at for, 294. 

gluten meal for, 299. 

grinding grain for, 303. 

hay rack for, 288. 

heavy feed of, 276. 

Jerusalem artichokes for, 296. 

Kafir corn for, 295. 

linseed meal for, 283, 299. 

mangel-wurzel for, 303. 

middlings for, 281. 

millet seed for, 293. 

oats for, 295. 

oil meal for, 299. 

potatoes for, 296. 

protein foods for, 283, 298. 

rape for, 275. 

rutabaga for, 303. 

rye for, 294. 

shelter for, 280. 

shorts for. 281. 

skim-milk for, 284. 

soaking grain for, 305. 

sorghum seed for, 295. 

soy bean meal for, 283. 

sugar beets for. 296. 

summer feed of. 273. 

tankage for. SOl. 

water, 307. 

weight of to market. 200. 

wet vs. dry meal for. 304. 

wheat for, 294. 

wheat screenings for, 294. 

winter rations for, 28r. 
Portable hog iiouse, 262. 
Prairie hay, 87. 

for steers, 182. 

for sheep. 228. 

for horses. 371. 
Prepotency. 134, 
Protein. 16. 
Protein foods, classes of, 86. 

when needed. 163. 2.83. 
Protein roughage for sheep. 227 , 
steers. 174. 

Quantity of food. 31. 
Quietness. 36. 

Range steers, ,172. 
Rape for sheep. 212. 
feeding value of, 215. 



412 



INDEX, 



Rape for poultry, 331. 

for pigs, 275. 
Regularity in feeding, 35. 
Rye, 93. 

for pigs, 294. 
Rye pasture, 97. 
Rye straw, 88, 281, 
Roots, 92, 183. 229. 

Salt for calves. 112. 

for beef cattle, 147. 

for chickens, 342. 

for cows. 100. 

for sheep, 228. 

for horses, 379. 
Score-card beef cattle, 132. 

for dairy bulls, 44. 

for dairy cows, 43. 

for lard hog, 255. 

for bacon hog, 259. 

for draft horse, 358. 

for sheep. 196. 
Self-feeder for sheep, 224. 
Sheep, 191 (see lambs). 

bloat in, 212. 

breeding flock. 200. 

digestive capacity of, 197. 

dog. difBcultv with, 193. 

ewe, feed for. 208, 205. 

extensive scale, 239. 

feeding in semiarid West, 239. 

fences for, 199. 

gestation period of, 202. 

housing of, 204. 

nodular disease in, 248. 

outlook for, 191. 

parasites in, 248. 

stomach worm in. 248. 

temperament of, 193. 

yearlings, 238. 
Shelter tests, 144. 
Shoats, 274. 

feed for, 274. 

rape for. 27.5. 

clover for, 275. 
Shock corn, 178. 235. 
Shorts. 85, 281. 
Shredded stover, 188. 
Silage, 60. 
Silage fed liberally, 74. 

for steers, 181. 

for chickens, 341. 
Silo, 62. 

capacity of, 64. 

corn best crop for, 67, 72, 

cost of. 67. 

cost of filling, 73. 

cowpeas for, 68. 

filling, 72. 

form of. 63. 

location of, 63. 

proportion and capacity of, 
64. 

stage of ripeness of corn for, 
70, 71. 

table sbowing capacity of, 66. 



Sklm-milk calves, 103. 

calf feeders for. 111. 

cost of raising, 110. 
. dehorning, 111. 

early feeding of, 104. 

fat substitutes for, 105. 

feeding buckets for, 105. 

flaxseed meal for, 106. 

grain feeding of, 107, 109. 

heavy vs. moderate feeding 
of, 108. 

pasture for, 110. 

quaniity of grain for, 108. 

roughness for, 110. 

salt for. 112. 

scours in, 104. 

shelter for, 111. 

stanchions for, 106. 

warming skim-milk for, 105. 

water for, 112. 

weaning, 110. 

whole milk vs. sklm-milk for, 
103. 
Snapped corn, 180. 
Soil fertility, maintaining, 3. 
Soiling, 98. 
Sore mouths, 181. 
Sorghum hay, 87, 181, 228, 371. 
Sorghum seed, 93. 
Soy bean meal. 83. 

for pigs. 283. 
Soy bean hay. 77, 384. 
Speltz (see emmer). 
Stable construction for cows, 46. 
Standards, feeding, 24 
Starch. 16. 

Steers, two-year-olds, 172. (See 
beef cattle.) 

beet pulp for, 183. 

cane for, 181. 

corn silage for, 181. 

corn stover with alfalfa for, 
175., 

early grain feeding, 172. 

flax straw for. 183. 

grain on pasture for, 165. 

millet hay for. 182. 

oat straw foi, 182. 

prairie hay for. 182. 

protein roughage vs. protein 
concentrates for, 174. 

roots for, 183 

shock corn for, 178. 

snaped corn for, 180. 

sore mouths in, 181. 

sorghum hay for. 181. 

timothy hay for, 182. 

wheat straw for, 182. 

winter feeding. 172. 

winter rations for, 172. 
Steers, yearlings, 156. 

character of the ration for, 
162. 

fall and winter feeding of, 
161. 

fall feeding on grass, 170. 



INDEX. 



413 



Steers, yearlinss, grain the first 

winter for, 157. 

grain ration on grass for, 165. 

protein concentrates for, 163. 

tabulated rations for, 160. 

Stocli foods. (See condimental 

stocls foods.) 
Sugar, 16. 
Swine (see hogs), 253. 

Timothy hay. 87. 

or steers, 182. 

for sheep, 228. 
Turlveys, 346. 

blackhead, 346. 

difficulty with, 347. 

feeding of. .^51. 

grit for, 352. 

hepatitis in, 346. 

profits in, 350. 

varieties of, 353. 



Turkeys, vitality of, diminish- 
ing, 346. 

Water for cows. 100. 

for calves, 112. 

for steers, 148. 

for sheep, 223. 

for horses, 378. 

for chickens, 325, 343. 

for pigs, 307. 
Wheat, 93. 

for beef cattle, 186. 

for sheep. 244. 

for pigs, 294. 
Wheat bran, 84. 
Wheat shorts, 85. 281. 
Wheat straw. 88. 182, 231. 
Winter lambs. £02. 
Winter milk production. 45. 
Winter shelter for cows, 45. 
Wool, 9. 
Work, 10. 



DEC 26 1905 



